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The Drachenloch above Vättis in the Tamina Valley

The Drachenloch above Vättis in the Tamina Valley, 2445 m above sea level and its significance as a paleontological site and prehistoric settlement from the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic) in Switzerland.

By

Dr. Emil Bächler.

With 28 illustrations.

St. Gallen
Printed by Zollikofer & Cie. Printing House
1921.

Self-published by the St. Gallen Natural History Society.

I. Introduction and History of the Discovery of the Prehistoric Finds in the Dragon Cave.

The discovery of the prehistoric settlements in the Kesslerloch1 near Thayngen (1874) and in the Schweizersbild2 near Schaffhausen (1891) were of far-reaching significance for both Swiss and European prehistory. They served as proof that a much earlier, i.e. older settlement of Swiss soil had taken place than that of the pile dweller or the man of the New Stone Age (Neolithic), namely by the man of the Old Stone Age or the Paleolithic, specifically of its youngest stage, the so-called Magdalenian, whose existence was already known through numerous finds from southern France (Dordogne). It is true that finds from earlier years from other Swiss locations were already available, such as from the vicinity of Veyrier at the foot of Salève (a few steps from the Swiss border) from 1833, furthermore from Villeneuve (Grotte de Scé), 1868, from Liesberg between Delémont and Laufen in the valley of the Birs (1874), at Bellerive as well as in the Freudental near Schaffhausen (1874). They all belong approximately to the same prehistoric time, but their significance was far surpassed by the finds from the Kesslerloch and Schweizersbild, because at these two locations a complete, clear, well-structured picture of fauna and flora, climatic and diluvial-geological conditions and especially also about the prehistoric-human cultural stage could be obtained.

As is well known, the New and Old Stone Ages form actual contrasts in the just-mentioned conditions, and as far as the cultural stages are concerned, it has not yet been possible today to bridge them without gaps. Anthropology also reckons with a more than merely partial renewal of the population at the beginning of the Neolithic period through immigration,3 without being able to give us complete information about where this immigration and the new arrivals came from.

The Neolithic man4 then encounters us in the pile dweller as a relatively already highly developed human being, who had taken quite significant steps on the path of mastering nature through his sedentariness and his own house construction, as inventor of the polished stone axe, the first long-range projectile weapon (bow and arrow), through the taming and breeding of domestic animals (dog, cattle, sheep, goat) = animal husbandry, through the utilization of cereal grains, barley and wheat for food = agriculture, as creator of earthen vessels = pottery, of textiles = weaving, of boats = navigation, etc.

How much poorer in material possessions stands the Paleolithic man, lacking all the mentioned cultural goods, the man of the cave period, as a roaming hunter, who was so completely dependent on nature and its whims; who sought shelter in natural caves, dwelling pits and primitive protective huts in the open, whose nutrition was conditioned by hunting luck and whose tools consisted of chipped raw stones and animal bones. While the climatic conditions in the Late Stone Age had become approximately equal to today’s, the youngest Paleolithic man stood under the dominion of the glacial, steppe and tundra climate. Advance and retreat of the great ice masses during the glacial period also resulted in migrations for humans. A Nordic and alpine animal world spread in the ice-free areas of the Central European plain. Reindeer, mammoth, wolverine, arctic fox and other northerners, but also ibex, chamois, marmot, mountain hare as well as steppe rodents formed the characteristic animals of this youngest period of the Old Stone Age. In the interglacial periods, massive shifts took place again. The entire Old Stone Age presents an extraordinarily changing natural picture, in which by no means all features have been deciphered. But today’s prehistoric research works unceasingly to shed light into the darkness with the help of new finds and find conditions.

The entire Old Stone Age is divided, according to the current state of science, into various stages or periods, some of which were already established by Gabriel de Mortillet5. They are named after French find sites (from oldest to youngest): Chellean, Acheulean, Mousterian, Aurignacian, Solutrean, Magdalenian. Several smaller stages are connected to the Magdalenian, which have been partially designated as transitions to the Neolithic, such as the Azilian-Tardenoisian and the Campignian. Preceding the oldest Paleolithic, the Chellean, one today also assumes a preparatory stage, the Pre-Chellean, which for some researchers represents the so-called Eolithic Period. The temporal division of these “cultural stages” of the Old Stone Age into the various phases of the Ice Age is still very fluctuating.6 It is partly guided by the existing chronologies of glaciation (Glacials and Interglacials), by their unity or multiplicity (diluvial-geological chronological systems by Penck, Geikie, Mühlberg, M. Boule, Deecke, Geinitz, Aigner, Holst) as well as by the phenomena of climatic oscillations, whereby the formation of clay and loess deposits also plays a role in age determination.7

Some further prehistoric stations, such as those of Grellingen in the Birs valley (1885), Büsserach in the Jura (1890), Winznau-Käsloch, Canton Solothurn (1908) form the proof for the further spread of the youngest Paleolithic also in the Basel and Solothurn Jura. Of particular significance are the newest investigations and excavations by Dr. Fritz Sarasin8 in the Birs valley, namely those at the castle rock of Birsegg (hermitage near Arlesheim-Basel), because here besides the Magdalenian, the stage of Azilian (painted pebbles) connected to it was found in an unambiguous way.

As far as the geological age question of the Magdalenian of all Swiss find sites is concerned, it is certain that it belongs to the post-glacial period (Postglacial) and specifically to the Achen and Bühl stage according to Prof. A. Penck. For the earlier and older cultural stages of the Old Stone Age, of which not a single one was proven in Switzerland until the year 1904, the chronological division into the Ice Age schema remains fluctuating, as already noted.

One simply did not dare to think of the existence of older cultural stages than that of the Magdalenian in Switzerland due to geological considerations. Mortillet and Hoernes have attempted to list the reasons for this alleged absence of older Stone Age stages, i.e. the Middle and Early Paleolithic. G. de Mortillet9 still says in 1898: “The Old Paleolithic period appears to be completely absent in Switzerland. This is understandable, as this country was almost entirely covered by ice during the great extension of the glaciers.” And M. Hoernes10 (1903): “One has often asked why no traces of interglacial human settlement would be encountered in the area glaciated during the Ice Ages. One knows the interglacial floras from the interior of Switzerland and Tyrol, and they testify to a climate that would also have been beneficial to humans. One has suspected that later Ice Ages had again erased the traces of human settlement. The correct answer to those questions is probably that humans did not penetrate into the alpine areas, even when they were accessible to them, as Paleolithic hunters, because they found abundantly sufficient game outside of them.” Also A. Penck says in the first volume of his classical work11 (p. 379): “Only very late did the settlement of the mountains by humans occur. No find speaks for the fact that the Paleolithic inhabitants of Central Europe took possession of the foreland of the mountains outside the Ice Age glaciation or penetrated eastward into its unglaciated valleys.”

If one had arrived at the view from purely geological considerations, but especially from the absence of any Middle and Early Paleolithic finds in the Alpine mountains, that Paleolithic settlements were not to be expected there at all, then the discovery of the prehistoric site in the Wildkirchli (1904) was all the more regarded as an event with which the specialized science has been most vigorously engaged for years.12

Here, for the first time, the traces of the primitive cultural work of the prehistoric man of the older Old Stone Age showed themselves in an unambiguous way in a legacy that suggested an even older stage than the Aurignacian and a time lying even further back than that of the dominion of the mammoth and reindeer. These finds belong, according to the stone and bone tools, to the Mousterian.13 The main and characteristic animal is the cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) in an enormous mass of bone remains (99.8%), which point to over 1000 specimens of this animal. Joined to them are remains of the cave lion (Felis leo var. spelaea), the cave panther (Felis pardus var. spelaea), the alpine wolf (Cuon alpinus fossilis), furthermore from wolf, badger, pine marten, ibex, chamois, red deer, marmot, alpine chough and rodents, thus a typical alpine forest fauna. The stone tool material consists of common quartzites, which were dragged up from the valley into the cave; the bone tools are the most primitive hide scrapers and hide removers.

The sensation which the discovery of the prehistoric settlement in the Wildkirchli aroused was all the more justified, as it is located at an altitude of 1477-1500 meters, while the highest such finds had previously barely exceeded the height of 600 meters. Then the Wildkirchli was the first securely authenticated Old Paleolithic site within the young moraines of the Alps and at the same time the highest in all of Europe. For the geological age position, moreover, its belonging to the last interglacial period (Riss-Würm-Interglacial) could be assumed. During the high glacial period, the habitability of the Wildkirchli was absolutely excluded; against the post-glacial age, a number of weighty reasons can be brought forward. For a more detailed presentation of further information about this hitherto highest and isolated oldest human settlement, there is no space here. I refer to the indicated literature. — The excavations in the Wildkirchli lasted during the winter months of the years 1904-1908. However, they are far from being completed. Further investigations should constitute a matter of honor for Swiss prehistoric science!

Until the year 1916, the Wildkirchli on the Säntis remained in lofty solitude the only such prehistoric site in the east of Switzerland. Then it got a sister station in the west, in the Neuchâtel Jura, in the likewise already known from earlier times Grotte de Cotencher near Chambrelien, in the Gorges de l’Areuse, at the entrance to the Travers valley at a height of 650 meters. Already in the year 1867, excavations took place there, whereby a quantity of Ursus spelaeus remains were found. Only in the year 1915 did the find site emerge from its oblivion. In the summer of 1916, the Neuchâtel geologist Professor Auguste Dubois in Neuchâtel, in association with Dr. H. G. Stehlin in Basel, began the systematic excavations that have since brought such excellent results to light.14

The animal world is very similar to that of the Wildkirchli. The deeper location of this site naturally corresponds to a significantly greater number of animal species. The cave bear also plays the main role (95%); lion and panther are also present, as well as the alpine ibex, chamois, marmot and wolf. Alongside these, wild horse, reindeer, wild cattle and other larger animals also appear. — The stone tools are of the character of those of the Wildkirchli, they are also quartzites of partly primitive form and not of local origin. In diluvial-chronological terms, Cotencher should provide highly valuable information,15 since the cave lies a full 400 meters below the highest level of the former Rhône glacier and the last glaciation, as well as more than a kilometer within the outermost boundary of its moraines, while the Wildkirchli was located about 300 meters above the highest glacier level during all glaciations, thus was always a nunatak, an isolated rocky peak or mountain that projects above the surface of a glacier or ice sheet.

If the proof had thus been provided by the two Paleolithic stations Wildkirchli and Cotencher that Switzerland also has a share in much older settlements than those of the Kesslerloch and Schweizersbild, the mammoth and reindeer period16 and thus the connection had been created to both the western (French) and the eastern (German and Austrian) older Old Stone Age cultural sites, then one could have rightfully designated the Wildkirchli as the uppermost, i.e. highest boundary with regard to the altitude distribution of the older Paleolithic man.

As in the everyday life of humans, so there are also in science and in the field of research surprises and completely unexpected things that lead to entirely different, new attitudes of our thinking. The discovery of the Wildkirchli (1904) or its ancient cultural site was the first proof of an unexpectedly early settlement of the area of the high Alpine mountains that was still long avoided by later humans. If one considers the relatively great proximity of the Appenzell hill country at the Wildkirchli, then the ascent of the Old Stone Age man from the valley to the not too distant Ebenalp, which is quite conspicuous from the north and east, was finally still easy to understand.

The conditions are quite different when we must think that even much higher areas located in the heart of the actual high mountains, far from the large, wide valley systems that are always so directionally determining for settlement by humans, had already been inhabited in the older Stone Age.

Through the discovery of the finds in the Dragon Cave located nearly 1000 meters higher than the Wildkirchli and in the middle of the mighty, world-remote rock maze of the Graue Hörner-Calanda-Ringel chain at an absolute height of 2445 meters above Vättis, in the Tamina-Calfeisen valley, the fact has now received powerful support that the man of the Old Stone Age and precisely the Old Paleolithic man had a certain preference for the settlement of the high-lying mountain parts of the country that are high today and were already high then, provided that there was an opportunity for inhabiting caves and sufficient game for his livelihood was available there.

At the time of the discovery of the first cave bear bones in the Dragon Cave (1917) and at the beginning of the first systematic excavations in this find site reaching 60 meters of Säntis height, we could not have suspected the results that today, after 5 times 6 summer weeks, lie before us and which now form the subject of our following considerations. In this case, it concerns in the general description of the find site, the surrounding mountain world and in the presentations of the topographical location and geological conditions a treatise that is also understandable for the layman and claims a certain completeness. The discussions about the results of the entire excavations, on the other hand, bear the character of a preliminary, if also somewhat more detailed communication, since the excavations that began in summer 1917 and were continued during the following summers 1918-1921, have today extended over only somewhat more than half of the existing find area.17

An actual scientific monograph of the prehistoric animal finds and the evidence for the former presence of Old Stone Age man will follow after completion of the research. (Authors: E. Bächler and Th. Nigg). The find material of Ursus spelaeus (cave bear) present in such rich measure provides us furthermore with sufficient opportunity for an osteological monograph about this characteristic animal of the caves during the glacial and interglacial period of our Alps.


Regarding the discovery of the prehistoric finds in the Dragon Cave above Vättis, the most important things should be said at the outset. As we learn later, the cave had long been known to the local alpine population and brief descriptions of it had been recorded here and there in the literature. Since my botanical studies in the Calfeisen-Tamina valley (1899-1904), I had also known of the existence of this cave, since I had already botanized in its vicinity (Gelbberg alp, Vättnerkopf) in 1899. In summer 1901, I visited it for the first time, at least in its foremost part, when Fridolin Kohler of Vättis, who was then serving as a shepherd on the Gelbberg alp, provided me with faithful guidance in the southern area of the Graue Hörner. Two years later, on July 3, 1903, I came with J. Graf, then teacher at the secondary school Vättis (now in Kappel, Toggenburg) and Fritz Iklé (St. Gallen) again to the Dragon Cave, this time also to inspect the rearmost cave parts and to take along a small collection of calcite groups and crystals from there. By means of cords, measuring stick and compass, a provisional survey of the cave was undertaken to create a ground plan and elevation of it. At the same time, Mr. Fritz Iklé took several flash photographs from the front cave part and at the entrance to the second cave chamber.

Already then the numerous tubular bones and jaws of animals scattered on the ground surface at the edge of the cave walls in the second and especially in the third section struck us, but we did not deem them worthy of special attention, since the time for the investigations was too short and the general judgment among the people was that these were dragged-in bones of grazing animals (cattle, sheep, goats) that had perished in the vicinity. At that time I was also not yet occupied with paleontological research and omitted further searches in the ground debris. Only when I began research in the Wildkirchli in 1904 did the thought of the surface bone finds in the Dragon Cave come back to me several times; however, I did not believe in the presence of Ursus spelaeus or even the legacy of prehistoric man. Nevertheless, in 1913 I noted the Dragon Cave above Vättis in the map of “Natural Monuments of the Cantons St. Gallen and Appenzell” (1:100,000) that I created and displayed at the Swiss National Exhibition in Bern in 1914, as a desideratum for future paleontological excavations. However, nothing further was done in the matter for the time being.

Then I was surprised on July 8, 1917, by a postal shipment with accompanying letter from Mr. Teacher Theophil Nigg at the secondary school in Vättis. He transmitted to me in a box a whole number of broken animal bones for evaluation, which he had taken on July 7, thus the day before, from the second cave part of the Dragon Cave at a depth of about 60 centimeters from the ground debris, which he had opened with a spade. — Among the fragment material was also an incisor tooth, which I immediately recognized as that of a cave bear (Ursus spelaeus). Already on July 10, I made Mr. Teacher Th. Nigg aware of the scientific importance of his discovery and requested him to keep it secret until the necessary steps had been taken with the competent cantonal and municipal authorities to elevate the Dragon Cave to a nature protection object in the sense of the cantonal ordinances and the federal civil code and to investigate it scientifically and professionally according to the existing regulations.

Both the honorable government council of the Canton St. Gallen, i.e. the education department (former head: Mr. Landammann H. Scherrer [†]), to which the natural monuments of the canton are subordinated, as well as the honorable municipal council of the political community of Pfäfers, and also the local administrative council of the local community of Vättis unanimously declared their consent to the scientific exploration of the Dragon Cave, with the condition that the finds from it should go to the Natural History Museum of the City of St. Gallen and a small part of duplicates should be handed over to the local school of Vättis, because the Dragon Cave as well as the Gelbberg alp is property of the local community of Vättis. With this decision, the provisions of the federal civil code Art. 702, 723 and 724 concerning natural monuments should be fully satisfied.18 As a precautionary measure, the municipal council issued a public prohibition of entering the Dragon Cave to prevent any possible theft of important finds. In the most accommodating way, the local administrative council of Vättis also made available to us free of charge the shepherd’s hut (2070 m) newly built on the Gelbberg alp shortly before the discovery of the Dragon Cave finds as accommodation during the night.

The not inconsiderable costs for the excavations in the Dragon Cave were taken over, as in the Wildkirchli, by the owner of the Natural History Museum of the City of St. Gallen, the citizens’ community, or the citizen administrative council (President: Mr. W. Gsell), which thereby acquired a right to the finds brought to light. — All the mentioned authorities and persons who have made themselves deserving of the realization of the Dragon Cave research deserve the warmest thanks at this point. We may express this all the more joyfully today because the hopes we attached to this unique find site have been fulfilled in the course of the excavations in a way that could not have been suspected, and the research still to follow at this highest-lying prehistoric station will substantially supplement and perfect the picture gained to date!

It was a given thing from the outset that the discoverer of the paleontological treasures in the Dragon Cave, Mr. Teacher Theophil Nigg in Vättis, was appointed as authorized collaborator in the entire exploration of the Dragon Cave, all the more so as he approached it with true fiery zeal and quickly adapted to the methodology of cave research. With joyful thanks, I may confess that the same owes its successes here primarily to Teacher Mr. Nigg and that it could never have been carried out so quickly and purposefully without him and his great loyalty to the cause. The Dragon Cave work requires a considerable expenditure of physical strength due to the extraordinarily high location of the find site alone, and we feel fortunate that we have found such reliable and work-loving promoters of our cause in the two assistants, Abraham Bonderer and Hermann Kressig, both from Vättis, who, alongside persistent physical performance, also show a proper understanding for the excavations.

The work in the Dragon Cave can only be carried out during the most favorable season, i.e. in the months of July, August and September, due to the significant altitude of this find site, during which time there are also school holidays in the mountain village of Vättis. However, the weather conditions usually do not allow constant work even in these months, since even at the height of Gelbberg, snowfall not infrequently occurs in bad weather, which makes the ascent from the Gelbberg hut (2070 m) to the Dragon Cave (2445 m) dangerous, indeed impossible. Thus we were forced to retreat to the valley several times even in the month of August. During persistent rainy weather, staying up here is also excluded, since we must undertake the ascent from the hut to the cave and the descent to the Gelbberg hut every day. On Saturday evening, the descent to Vättis always takes place, on Monday morning the research caravan (4 men strong) climbs back to the heights with provisions for a week. A daily ascent and descent would be too laborious and time-consuming. The ascent from Vättis to the Gelbberg hut requires 2½ to 3 hours, that from the hut to the cave 1 hour.

II. General Situation of the Drachenloch.

The description of the Drachenloch and its surroundings leads us into the legendary, wildly romantic Tamina and Calfeisen valleys,19 which have been opened up both touristically and scientifically only in recent decades. The outlet of the Tamina valley toward the great St. Gallen Rhine valley is formed by the spa and health resort of Ragaz, famous since ancient times, with the warm healing springs of Pfäfers located about an hour further south in the Tamina valley. There, the Tamina, which has become a foaming, often wildly rushing mountain stream and unites with the Rhine at Ragaz, has created through mighty post-glacial erosion the equally famous gorge “which is unsurpassed in grandeur by any other in the Swiss Alps” (Albert Heim). In its ever-deepening excavating activity, the Tamina has finally cut into those wonderful warm water arteries (at 37.5° C) bubbling from the interior of the earth, whose origin is today still as much the subject of strict scientific investigation as of fantastic interpretations, without the riddle being completely solved.20

The hike through the approximately 2½ hour long Tamina valley becomes one of the most varied valley tours in the alpine region. The first half of the valley can be traversed on two paths, one to the right, the other to the left high above the river. The right-side valley road starts from the village and former monastery of Pfäfers above Ragaz (835 m) via Vadura (960 m), along the former monastery path from Pfäfers to Kunkel Pass to Mapragg, where it joins with the left-bank path that leads from Bad Pfäfers to Valens (915 m), over the eerie Mühlebach gorge, the legend-shrouded hamlet of Tschenner and to Vasön (928 m). While the mentioned villages still lie on magnificent, pasture-green valley terraces high above the river, from the Mapragg power plant onward we enter the almost gorge-like narrowed Tamina valley, which is bounded by the ever-higher rising rock walls of the northern spur of the Calanda and the spurs of the Graue Hörner (Zanay horns and Monte Luna) and forms an apparently complete valley closure in the barely 25-meter-wide gorge of St. Peter (876 m). Once, that is, still at the beginning of the present geological epoch (Alluvium), there was a mighty rock barrier here, behind which lay a long reservoir lake whose outflow with its grinding force finally broke through the rock barrier.

The valley widens again, and in little more than half an hour, after we have crossed the Tamina over an old, covered wooden bridge (“Schüelenbrugg”), we arrive at the mountain village of Vättis (951 m), situated in overwhelming solitude and in a broad valley basin, which has recently become a much-visited health resort for change of air. From three sides we are here surrounded by mighty mountain ranges that approach close to the village and the Tamina river with their base. Above all, it is the enormous rock wall of the Calanda that, in mighty walls rising almost vertically to its peak (2808 m), closes off the eastern exit from the valley and forces the Tamina, coming from a westerly direction, into a northerly course.

From the Calanda side at Vättis, the eye opens to a surprisingly beautiful, stage-like view into the westward-opening source land of the Tamina, which from Vättis bears the still unexplained name Calfeisental21 (Fig. 1).

Once the still-connected mighty mountain range crossed the now open space in a wide, flat-arched bow and uniform superimposition. Into this arch the Tamina cut a valley that seeks its equal in grandeur and romantic beauty. The Calfeisen valley today separates the southern mountain range (left in the picture) rising to the highest elevations of the Ringel chain with the Orgeln and Simel located near the village of Vättis, and that of the Graue Hörner with the nearby Gelbberg-Drachenberg (right in the picture) and the Gigerwaldspitz emerging further back. At the very back, in clear weather, one can just see the western valley closure in the snow- and ice-crowned Piz Sardona or Saurenstock, from whose heart one of the three Tamina-forming glacier streams springs.

With overwhelming austerity and power of landscape expression, the two mountain structures of the Graue Hörner and the Ringel chain confront the wanderer in the front Calfeisen valley. A quite comfortable cart road leads into it today as far as the Sardona alp. From quarter-hour to quarter-hour, pictures and moods change. At the beginning of our hike, the light-flooded mountain forest, mostly of beech and little coniferous wood (larches), quickly takes us in. Then we enter the spruce forest, whose more serious mood is further intensified by the dull thunder of the Tamina in the depths. We feel almost lost between the narrow valley walls rising ever higher in bold steep walls. Upon vertical rock masses, new rock slopes and precipices build up on both sides, and above them throne sharp peaks, finely serrated ridges, dome-like structures. In the Gigerwald we enter, almost with a feeling of relief, a friendly meadow ground located under the wildly plunging Gigerwaldspitz, from which it goes right northward into the awesome steep gorge of the Tersol stream ravine.

Through a tunnel section built only recently (1904) under the sloping Gigerwald plate, we follow the valley inward, always along the roaring mountain stream, to the mountain hamlet of St. Martin, consisting of only a few alpine huts and an ancient gray chapel, situated on a green mountain slope. In its ossuary, the bleached bone remains of the former “giants” of the ancient Walser settlement in the Calfeisen valley speak a silent and at the same time serious language of former richer habitation (see historical section). Ever higher our foot carries us to the entrance into the now more expansive rear Calfeisen valley with its extensive alpine pastures, on which the sound of herds rings out from all sides during summer. Solitude surrounds the wanderer, and the background is closed by the “great radiance” of snow and ice of the Sardona mountains.

Let us return to Vättis! The strict isolation of the place is somewhat mitigated when we turn our gaze south to the almost flat-basin depression that leads up to the Kunkel Pass (1351 m), one and a half hours away from here, which suggests an ancient folk route. But before any human foot had ever trod this terrain, the Kunkel valley, from whose notch the little village of Vättis receives its only sunrays in winter, formed the broad bed of the former West Rhine. Later this was deprived of its northern course and then turned eastward toward Chur. The Kunkel valley became a torso, and the Görbs stream that flows through it today only collects the waters of the lateral mountain streams flowing down from the Calanda and the Ringel chain and leads them to the more water-rich Tamina at the village of Vättis.

And at another time, an arm of the mighty Rhine glacier pushed from the Grisons Rhine valley over the same Kunkel Pass to the Tamina and through its narrow valley from Vättis all the way to Ragaz. The traces of glacial activity clearly meet our eyes at various places, such as in the rock gorge of St. Peter. In the debris slopes on both sides of the Tamina we find the witnesses of the transport of non-local (Grisons) rocks (erratics), and the work of the transporting glacier water reveals to us the peculiar hill or “larch hill” that rises near the village of Vättis, whose fluvioglacial origin is beyond doubt. The river erosion of the valley terrain of Vättis is evidenced by the magnificent, extensive terrace formations clothed with lush pasture green and fields. Despite its occasional wildness, the Tamina has always kept to its predetermined bed, so that human settlements at this location could take place not on the terrace floor, but safely only a few meters above the level of the river.

Let us now turn our attention to our actual goal, the Drachenberg with its remarkable cave, the Drachenloch! We could have let the attentive wanderer survey the entire situation barely 5 minutes before entering the village of Vättis, from the country road to the right above. Our Figure 2, which we use again to describe the ascent to the Drachenloch, gives us better than many words a concept of the extreme altitude of the Drachenloch (2445 m), the significant height difference between this and the valley floor at only 930 m, as well as the steepness of the slope to be traversed, since the horizontal distance from the lower valley terrace to the cave measures barely 2 kilometers.

However, we gain the most powerful impression of the Drachenberg somewhat above Vättis toward Kunkels, on the meadow terrace of Mattlina. Our Figure 3 also spares us any lengthy description there. It is a giant massif of successive rock walls that form the broad foundation of the mountain, and at the very top, built in terraces, rests the dragon’s head, a majestic natural fortress. The traversal of the steep wall labyrinth is impossible from here in a vertical direction for ordinary mountain hikers; only the former chamois hunter (the area is now a state game preserve) might have forced access to the high terrace of the Gelbberg alp located to the right below the dragon’s head along the narrow terrace ledges and through eerie crevices.

Let us cast a quick glance from here at the vegetation conditions on the Drachenberg, insofar as they relate to the forest. Right at the village of Vättis, adjoining the pastureland of the Gamsboden terrace, the beech belt spreads mountain-ward, which as a closed formation extends to the absolute height of 1300 m and valley-inward into the Calfeisen valley only to the Gigerwald, while at the Kunkel Pass it still dominates in closed stands. Remarkably, the larch has established itself in magnificent stands on all sides of the lowest valley slopes near Vättis (Fig. 3). Although it is the highest-reaching pioneer of the alpine high forest in the area of the Calfeisen valley and on the Calanda (in the former alongside Swiss stone pine) and climbs far up onto all higher-lying ledges and terraces above the closed forest, it enjoys healthy and enduring growth here below in the valley floor. The question of whether the larch here owes its existence to natural seeding or to the cultivating hand of man has remained unsolved.

The next higher dominion in the area belongs to the red spruce or Norway spruce, namely from about 1300 to 1750 m altitude. On the east side of the Gelbberg-Drachenberg and Vättnerberg, it just reaches the lower edges of the high terraces of Gelbberg, Vättnerälpli (Ladils) and Vättnerberg. In our Figure 3 (upper right) we have the last spruces at 1760 m, associated with individual larches and two thick-trunked pines (Pinus silvestris). On the Gelbberg-Drachenberg, however, the larch does not achieve noteworthy extent. Right on the above-mentioned rocky head begins the dwarf pine belt, here as elsewhere badly thinned by pastoral farming, whose uppermost bushes reach to 1960 m, in the lower part here and there still interspersed to 1880 m by individual larches of the “battle zone.” From 1900 m onward, the sole dominion on the Drachenberg belongs to the alpine and lean pasture landscape. Its green mantle clothes the greatest part of the Drachenberg slope (covered with snow in Fig. 3, end of October 1917). An admittedly already much torn grass sward spreads in places even on the summit ridge of the dragon’s head, whose peak becomes snow-free every summer.

Having looked around in this attractive valley region in the foregoing, insofar as it was also necessary for later discussions, we now prepare ourselves to reach our main goal, the journey to the Drachenloch. Who would ever have believed that under its high-vaulted and far-visible cave roof, primeval life of humans and animals had played out! The magnificent pictures accompanying our writing spare us the trouble of lengthy description of the ascent to the Drachenberg. Let us consider Figure 2, which allows us to survey the entire situation somewhat below Vättis (toward Pfäfers).

In the middle of the steep slope that rises to the Drachenberg and Vättner head, erosion has cut out the sometimes completely impassable Kreuzbach gorge, an eerie ravine that reaches up to the Gelbberg terrace, that is, above the forest line. In its depths rushes the Kreuzbach, plunging over mighty rock barriers, which swells to dangerous flood water during heavy precipitation and has often carved deep wounds into the cultivated land spreading at the foot of the mountain before its partial containment. To the left side of the Kreuzbach gorge, our well-shod foot sets itself to the steep slope, which is now overcome in many zigzag windings and traverses first through magnificent beech forest, then through deeply serious spruce forest, here and there with charming rest and lookout spots, until we have reached the crest of the upper forest line, where we step out into the free landscape of the alpine pasture. Surprising pictures of the nearby mountains come before our eyes here. At the beginning of our excavations in the Drachenloch, the path to the forest meadow of Patina, located at 1500 m altitude, was extremely poor and very strenuous. Thanks to the financial support that the administrative authority of the municipality of St. Gallen also granted us for the considerable path improvement, this steepest part of the ascent can now be conquered without danger in two hours.

Right at the first grass hillock above the forest line, at the so-called “Brunnenhüttli” (1760 m),22 where beside free pasture areas a tangle of magnificent mountain pines and alpine rose bushes covers the flat hilltops, the Drachenberg with its uppermost rock wall brightly illuminated by the morning sun has moved within tangible reach.23 This accelerates our pace to the heights. In a narrow terrain channel between dwarf-pine-covered longitudinal ridges, then stepping onto the free pasture, we have arrived in a good half hour on the wonderful terrace surface of Gelbberg alp (2070 m) (Figs. 5 and 6) and find ourselves in the midst of a gripping mountain landscape. A few years ago, only one ancient shepherd’s hut stood on this alp, built of stone slabs, half-collapsed, barely protecting from wind and weather. A stroke of luck had it that in July 1917, just at the time of the discovery of the first Drachenloch finds, a new, though small but cheerful shelter for the shepherd was erected by the local community of Vättis, the owner of Gelbberg alp, who keeps up to 350 sheep here every year for summer grazing. This hut, since then warmly shingled, has now become our, the researchers’, high station for five summers, as protection and shelter in bad weather and our resting place at night (Fig. 7). Thanks to the munificence of our museum authority, we could make all arrangements in the hut to create a cozy nest here that naturally excludes all comfort but lets us sense all the more the “happiness” of primitive man. Without this new hut, it would have been completely impossible for us to have raised the scientific treasures of the Drachenloch in relatively such a short time, because the old hut would have been too uninhabitable for a stay of 4-5 men.

In earlier times, the Gelbberg alp, which despite its height (it is the highest used pasture in the Tamina-Calfeisen valley) still bears good grass sward, was also grazed with large cattle (young or dry cattle).24 Since the time when the alp path along the Kreuzbach gorge to the Gelbberg, but also that on the steep flysch slope of the Vättner head (Aelpli head) became impassable for large cattle due to constant weathering, only sheep and goats have divided the area on the Gelbberg alp up to the highest slopes. During their summer stay, they contribute very much to the friendly animation of the otherwise so magnificent solitude and world isolation.

Here on the wonderful plateau of the Gelbberg terrace, we are near the mountains of Vättner head (2619 m), which is incorrectly designated as Aelpli head in the topographic map (Fig. 6), and the Drachenberg (2635 m) to the left (Fig. 7). Mightily and impressively, the castle-like summit heads set themselves upon the broadly placed mantle of both mountains. From their “faces” speaks the never-resting activity of weathering in the mountains. The partly open, partly hidden under grass-green scree and rubble slopes between them are the eloquent witnesses to the processes of nature’s modeling in solid rock. Likewise the numerous rock columns eaten away by deep channels and the many cavities at the foot of the summit section of the Vättner head. Both mountains are separated only by a narrow, basin-like incision, a typical cirque, from which the Kreuzbach springs high above, which immediately at the Gelbberg alp, plunging over steep rock steps, disappears from our eye in the deep gorge of the same name. In heavy rainy weather, the numerous channels on the Vättner head are traversed by loudly thundering stream calls that all rush toward the Kreuzbach gorge. Between the Vättner head and the highest Drachenberg, the so-called rear or northern Drachenberg pushes in to the right of the latter, and only a narrow notch separates it from the front or southern Drachenberg, in whose mighty, vertical rock wall the Drachenloch is located.

From the Gelbberg hut, a brief overview of the mountain picture now unfolding in closest proximity is worthwhile. To the left of the Drachenberg, above the Calfeisen valley lying at dizzying depths, whose bottom the eye can reach only on the south side of the Gelbberg alp, rises as a majestic mountain structure magnificently stepped from the valley to the uppermost edges, the Ringel chain (Fig. 4). It is the highest elevation in the area, as well as in the St. Gallen-Appenzell mountains. Like a broad, roof-like ridge, the blindingly radiant Ringel glacier leans against the imposing double summit tower of the Ringel peak (3251 m) to its right. Only from the south slope of the Drachenberg is the view also granted to us of the western spurs of the Ringel chain, the Glaser horn, the Piz da Sterls, as well as the snow- and ice-covered Sardona mountains with the Trinser horn, the Piz Segnes, Piz Sardona or Saurenstock, the Sardona glacier, the large and small disk. In the east, the wonderfully finely stepped Panära horns (rear and front), the crenellated rock fortress of the “Orgeln,” the giant stock of the “Ofen,” and finally the Simel, green to its summit, whose ridge slowly descends toward the valley of Vättis and Kunkels, join the ruler in the circle.

Even up here, the mountain power of the Calanda with its two main peaks (Haldensteiner Calanda = 2808 m and Felsberger Calanda = 2689 m), between which lies the saddle of the so-called “Schaftäli” with the “Teufelskirchli” (a broad-pyramidal rocky head), is able to maintain the contrast of its grandiose western precipice and its flatter eastern side toward the Chur Rhine valley, clothed with pasture almost to the summit. Also, a large part of the further distant view to the east is cut off by it.

If we wanted to describe the entire magnificent panoramic view from here, we would have to name dozens of distinctive mountain shapes - all good acquaintances - by name. But even a few of them are enough to let us recognize what a high, scenic location we find ourselves in and what an extensive panorama already presented itself to the Paleolithic hunter’s eye up here.

Right over the ridge of Alp Salaz on the northern spur of the Calanda, between it and the nearby Vättner head, we have a full overview of the entire Grisons Rätikon from the high-throning Scesaplana over the Kirchli peaks, Schweizertor, Drusenfluh, Sulzfluh, Scheienfluh, Madrishorn and Schlappinerspitz. The mighty scree slopes of these dolomite shapes shine over in mysterious shimmer. The conclusion to the right is formed, in clear distant view, by the gleaming snow and ice fields of the magnificent Silvretta massif, high above the Prättigau valley region closer to us. As the last, we still recognize the snow-covered heads of the Seehorn, Gross-Litzner, Verstanklahorn and Piz Buin.

But now first the distant view toward the south, in the notch of the Kunkel Pass between Calanda and Ringel chain! It takes shape most impressively, however, from the height of the Drachenloch. “Who counts the heads, names the names…?” Like stage sets, chain ranks behind chain, one higher than the other. In the background from the elongated Domleschg with the house-studded Heinzenberg stand in the center the Piz Beverin, to its left the eternal snow fields of the Suretta horns and the Piz Grisch, to the right the Bruschg horn and Bären horn, and in the background the icy head of the Tambo horn and the Rheinwald horn. In the southeast, however, in clear föhn atmosphere emerges at the very back, bathed in pure light, the majestic Monte delle Disgrazia, and resting in sublime solemnity, the snow and ice garment of the Bernina (4052 m) shimmers through the almost incomprehensible space.

We can easily spare the reader a closer description of the ascent route from our Gelbberg hut, since we have drawn it in our Figure 7 and, moreover, a proper alpine path marking (red!) was established during the past summer. For hikers free from vertigo, this last ascent presents no difficulty, since here too a significant path improvement has taken place. In barely half an hour we have, mostly over pasture slope, completed half the way to the white rock wall visible high above the left hut roof and turn on a well-built, though somewhat steep path to the left onto the south slope of the Drachenberg, climb it until we find ourselves at the outermost rock corner of the Drachenberg wall, from where a few steps northward lead us to the mighty cave portal, the entrance to the underground chambers of the mountain. Outside under the overhanging rock roof we have erected our primitive lunch table along with resting benches, and right next to it stands, reminiscent of the primeval time of the big game hunter, our cooking hearth built of rough rock slabs.

III. The Name Drachenloch.

There is no doubt that the cave in the Drachenberg, the Drachenloch, must have been known to the oldest historical inhabitants of the Calfeisental, since not only the Drachenberg, but also the entrance portal to the cave were clearly visible at all times from the southern part of the village of Vättis and the valley basin of Kunkels. However, no older historical reports about the mountain and the cave are to be found. Only in the year 1836 is it first mentioned in the writing: “The Canton of St. Gallen, geographically and statistically described” under the name Drachenberg. Since then the name has also been found in later maps and in the literature.25

The oldest topographical map in which the Drachenberg first appears with this name is the Eschmann map of the Cantons of St. Gallen and Appenzell, at a scale of 1:25,000, published in the years 1840-1846, which remains “unsurpassed and exemplary in the manner of mountain representation” to this day. The hatching used in it with vertical lighting and isohypses at 100 m intervals comes to compelling expression in the distribution of light and shadow, especially in the southernmost part of the Canton of St. Gallen - that is, in the highest elevations and particularly in the Tamina-Calfeisental. The cave itself is not drawn in, however, and the name Drachenloch is also missing. Unfortunately, in this otherwise magnificent map, a number of names are not placed in the correct location.26

Prof. Dr. W. Gröbli, who opened up the tourist region of the Calfeisental, described a brief visit to the Drachenloch in the Yearbook XXV (1889-1890) of the S.A.C. (“New Wanderings in the Club Region”). The Drachenloch is also mentioned as worth visiting in the older editions of Iwan v. Tschudi’s “Tourist.” Gröbli estimates its height at around 2430 m (thus little below reality). He estimates the width of the cave at 3-4 m, the height at 5-6 m. According to his information, it should extend fairly horizontally 30 m (!) deep into the mountain.

F. W. Sprecher27 points out in his two works “On Place Names of the Tamina Region” that the names “Draggaberg” and “Dragga-loch” are not of German, but of Romance or even older origin and should therefore be left in this spelling. In the etymological derivation of the two words he relies on Carigiet, P. Basil, Romansh Dictionary, where the word dracca means strong, persistent rain, which when applied to our cave would mean something like a constant or strong dripping down, “Draggaloch” thus meaning a moist or wet hole.

We can, however, properly avoid the derivation from “dracca” attempted by F. W. Sprecher, since according to Prof. Dr. Pult (St. Gallen), a capable expert and master of Romance languages, the word “dracca” in the Romance language has nothing to do with dragons. In Romance (according to kind oral communication from Prof. Pult) the wooden dragon heads on house beams are still called today = dracs = draks = draggs. The concept dracs is, however, identical with drache = fabulous monster. It would furthermore be incorrect to apply the name “dracca” = strong, persistent rain, dripping down to our Drachenloch, since in reality precisely the inner cave parts (II and III) are by no means water-bearing cave spaces, but are rather characterized by dryness (except for air humidity). Otherwise one would have to give almost all caves the name “Drachenloch.”28

According to Fr. L. K. Weigand: German Dictionary (1909) the word Drache in Old High German = trahho also traccho, in Middle High German = trache also tracke, Dutch = draak, Anglo-Saxon = draca, Swedish = drake, New High German = drache (with d for original t), all borrowed from Greek-Latin draco (alongside dracco), which means fabulous great serpent. The word “Tracken” has thus been adopted into the German language for long periods. Etterlin and later Stumpff (1548) and Gessner (Animal Book, 1606) and others mention it. The Vättis resident, however, who does not know the “k” sound, simply says “dragge” or “tragga,” always with the hard c-sound for the “gg.” -– In doing so he himself thinks only of the dragons of legend, which indeed already play a prominent role in Holy Scripture, in Greek and all ancient history of the Orient.

In the appendix (1916) F. W. Sprecher mentions the absence of a local dragon legend, which should nevertheless be connected to this place if popular belief had brought the same into the well-known relationship with the dragon-like creatures of prehistoric times. Against this statement, however, it should be remembered that a legend of the Drachenloch near Vättis was known to the collector of legends of the Tamina valley, the recently deceased teacher Ludwig Jäger in Vättis. I heard it from his own mouth, and its wording corresponds with that which we find in No. 232 of the “Legends of the Canton of St. Gallen” by J. Kuoni (1903). L. Jäger had already published part of the legends earlier in the “Oberländer Anzeiger,” he handed over another part to teacher J. Kuoni for his legend collection, and the rest, among which are some very beautiful ones, the author handed over to me in writing. Under the title “The Dragon” we find in Kuoni (No. 232) alongside a brief description of the Drachenloch above Vättis the following legend:

“In this grotto there once lived a fierce dragon, from which the cave received the name Drachenloch. But after a long time the dragon became too bored in his castle, and he dared the bold flight across the Tamina to the Calanda. One can see from Vättis in a steep, high rock wall (on the Calanda) the hole where he flew in. But he found no ground and bottom in the interior of the mountain and then fell many thousand feet down and there perished miserably.”

The present population of Vättis also understands by the concept “dragon” a monstrous, fabulous living being. We possess, moreover, from the Sarganser region several more “lindworm legends,” such as that of Gamidaur (No. 197 in Kuoni). The legend also has the formerly thicket-covered north slope of the St. Georgenhügel located near Berschis inhabited by dragons. Down into the village itself the monsters are said to have ventured, as Manz says, spreading fear and terror everywhere. What jubilation when the knightly St. George freed the inhabitants from this plague!29 -– The mountain dragon at Wangserberg should also be mentioned, which the chronicler Joh. Jak. Wagner30 describes as a bodily, really seen monster, according to witness statements. Everywhere it is “honorable men” who have really seen the dragons.

Finally, special attention should be drawn to the well-known Alpsegen, the prayer call or “Ave Maria.” This Alpsegen is still called out every evening by the herdsman before going to bed outside the hut over his alp on several alps of the St. Gallen highlands, or rather sung, to implore the protection of God, the Virgin Mary and the saints upon man and cattle, upon hut and meadow, upon ground and ridge. -– Usually the prayer call is spoken at the same pitch, only at individual places, toward the end of the lines, does the caller let his voice sink by a third or fourth. On the alps that have a Catholic owner, the Alpsegen is considered a duty of the herdsman. In this prayer call the dragon also appears as “Wurm” [worm]. I include here the entire Alpsegen in the version by Manz (loc. cit. 90/91), since it, though known, can be reproduced in wording by very few.

“Ave Maria! Ave Maria! Ave Maria!
May God protect and our dear Lord Jesus Christ
Life, property and goods and all that is around here!
May God protect and the dear holy Saint George,
Who may well watch and listen here!
May God protect and the holy Saint Martin,
Who may well watch and guard here!
May God protect and the dear holy Saint Gall!
With all his holy saints!
May God protect and the dear holy Saint Peter
Saint Peter! Take thy keys well in thy right hand,
And lock well the bear’s path,
The wolf’s tooth,
The lynx’s claw,
The raven’s31 beak,
The worm’s tail,
The griffin’s flight,
The stone’s leap!

May God protect us from such evil hour!
That such little animals may neither scratch nor bite,
As little as the false Jews bit our dear Lord God!
May God protect all here in our ring,
And the dear Mother of God with her Child!
May God protect all here in our valley,
Here and everywhere!
May God protect and may God rule, and may the dear God do this!
Ave Maria! Ave Maria! Ave Maria!” - 32

That the dragons and lindworms also played a significant role in popular imagination in the other parts of the Canton of St. Gallen is proven by the many related legends in Kuoni’s collection.

Wherever we look in the literature and at the localities to which dragon legends are attached, we always find them at rocky places with caves. It is interesting to learn that popular belief by no means connects all caves with the fabulous animal races of prehistoric times, the dragons, griffins, lindworms and tatzelworms, which with glowing eyes and slavering jaws guard immense treasures (dragon gold), but rather that the dragon holes usually involve highly situated, large, spacious and widely visible caves in which these terrible forms also had room for flying in and out and for shelter.

Thus there exists, besides the Drachenloch near Vättis, one at Giswilerstock, further one near Burgdorf (J. J. Scheuchzer), and the best known until now is that at the Drachenfluh (Municipality of Ennetmoos, Canton Nidwalden, 862 m above sea level) at the uppermost precipice of the eastern slope of the Muttenschwanderberg. In this Drachenloch, a large, spacious cave, according to legend a dragon making the area unsafe lived in the 13th century, which the hero Struthahn von Winkelried killed at the price of his own life.33

O. Abel rightly says in his classic Paleobiology (p. 5): “We should not be surprised that in a time that still believed in fabulous beings and dragons, skeletal finds of fossil mammals (mammoths, rhinoceroses, cave bears), saurians, etc. repeatedly provided new nourishment for dragon legends.” And thus it has been proven in numerous cases that precisely there, where the name and legend of a dragon clings to certain caves, bone remains of prehistoric animals have been found, even superficially (as a result of “treasure digging”), and these were assigned to dragon beings because of their unusual size, since they could not be compared with animals still living today, including domestic animals. It is also a quite general phenomenon, and I have encountered it hundreds of times, that people like to exaggerate the size of found bones into the fabulous, quite similar to statements about the depth or length of caves. The unusual generally undergoes rapid fantastic enlargement. Then the knowledge of animal bones among the people is generally poor.

It is, incidentally, interesting to learn from J. J. Scheuchzer (loc. cit. II. Vol. p. 232) or already from J. J. Wagner (Hist. Nat. Helv., p. 213) “that in the year 1689, on July 9th at the Pilatus mountain, on the Unterwalden side, the bone framework of a dragon was dug out from a hole,” of which the individual bones found are named. Wagner then writes: “I surmise that these remains are not from a dragon, but from a bear. An observation from the year 1718 confirms me in this surmise, in which some bones were found in a cave of a very high mountain, called the Ober-Urner-Schwendi, and given out as remains of a dragon, which however in my judgment are nothing other than the remains of a bear, which perhaps had its winter quarters in this cave and had to die of hunger because of a collapsed entrance.”

The Wildkirchli cave owes its origin to a dragon according to one legend. There, bones were also found partly lying on the surface, and indeed at a time when dragon legends were also flourishing most in the Innerrhoden region (The dragon at Kamor. Cf. Wagner, Hist. Nat. Helv., p. 250).

In the Drachenloch above Vättis too, such exposed bones had lain around since ancient times, including those of respectable size (e.g. humerus of the cave bear), which were probably lifted by “treasure diggers.”

Very often such bone caves also form the find sites for the remains (tools, weapons, jewelry, coal hearths) of prehistoric man, the cave dweller. Here only incidentally should reference be made to the cave finds numbering in the thousands, as well as to the cave of the dragon in the Wildkirchli, the dragon in the Hirschensprung in the Rhine valley (Neolithic), to the Drachenloch at Muttenschwanderberg in Unterwalden.34

After these explanations about the dragon creatures in Switzerland -– which we can regard with certainty as products of popular imagination from ancient traditions and to which large bone finds from caves repeatedly provided new nourishment -– the name and significance of our highest situated alpine Drachenloch above Vättis can probably be derived in the most natural way.

IV. Brief Historical Overview of the Tamina-Calfeisental.

The most important information about the known human settlement history in the Tamina-Calfeisental up to now should precede our prehistoric presentations from the earliest times. The literature on this subject has already reached a considerable scope. It consists partly of printed sources and works, partly of handwritten documents that are found in the most diverse archives. Teacher Mr. Theophil Nigg in Vättis, the discoverer of the first Drachenloch finds, has been occupied for years with the compilation of all the material existing in handwritten documents about the Pfäfers monastery and the Tamina valley; the collection has already grown to several substantial folio volumes. These historical works and the search for the very oldest witnesses of settlement in this region formed the occasion for the discovery of the Drachenloch finds.

The oldest settlement of the Tamina-Calfeisental has remained shrouded in deep darkness to this day. Finds from the diluvial or glacial period have been absent so far. The Neolithic period (New Stone Age) could also not be proven, and find objects from the Bronze Age are likewise lacking, which came to light at individual localities at least in the Canton of Graubünden and in the Sarganser region. If witnesses of pre-Roman settlement in this valley have thus remained absent until now, this does not mean that prehistoric peoples such as the Vennonetes or Sarunetes could not have reached the Tamina valley from the Graubünden Rhine valley via the Kunkels pass. A first bronze find would at least authenticate humans as such, if not in permanent larger settlement, then at least as travelers passing through.

Since Roman finds came to light everywhere at Pfäfers, Ragaz, Vilters, Mels, Sargans, Heiligkreuz, Ragnatsch, Bärschis, Flums, Wallenstadt, one would have to wonder if individual settlement waves had not penetrated into the Tamina valley.35 Yet any secure evidence for this is lacking. It is not excluded, however, as W. Manz also emphasizes, that the route Reichenau-Kunkels-Pfäfers might have served now and then as an emergency route during Roman times because of Rhine flooding on the Chur-Ragaz line. W. Manz (p. 21) also speaks of traces of a “Roman road” between Pfäfers and Vättis that should come to light at some locations,36 and old road traces between Vättis and the Kunkels heights are also addressed as remains of this road. How far these assumptions correspond to the facts cannot be decided to this hour; so much is certain that the Kunkels route later, in the Middle Ages, played a significant role, as emerges from various documents. W. Manz (p. 21) rightly says: “Why should traffic not have taken possession of this line already in Roman times, and would the Pfäfers monastery have been founded around the years 712-731 precisely at that location if it could not have controlled from there both the Zurich-Chur and Bregenz-Chur lines, as well as the Kunkels route, and if it had not had the significance of a hospice for wanderers traveling the way?” Bavier,37 H. Wartmann,38 Kuoni39 and others assume an old trade route through the Walensee valley to Ragaz and over the Kunkels to Reichenau, which there joined the old Rhaetian Alpine roads.

Still today a “Roman road” leads about a quarter hour southeast of Ragaz to the Chur road, where it suddenly turns at a rock corner to lead in rather steep ascent through the Fluppischlucht40 upward in a westerly direction, bordered on both sides by walls, as a barely 3 m wide, bumpy and in places exposed to the rock substratum hollow way to the “Porta Romana.” Here, judging by few remains, a Roman military installation should have been located as defense against enemies penetrating from the north. Up above the Wartenstein ruin, near the tourist restaurant of the same name, this Roman road still unites today with the carriage road Ragaz-Pfäfers-Vättis. From the topographical standpoint, no objections can be raised against the passability of the route Pfäfers, Vadura, Vättis, since the conditions in Roman times were hardly different from today. The rock narrows at St. Peter were also already broken through nearly to the present level of the Tamina river and formed no traffic obstacle.

The historical darkness in the Tamina valley gradually clears when we move into the post-Roman period. With the incorporation of the “Roman province of Rhaetia” into the Frankish realm, the entire Sarganser region was assigned to the Currätien district (Raetia Curiensis). Around 916 it was then united with the Gaster region, the Upper Rhine valley and Vorarlberg as the county of Lower Rhaetia with the Duchy of Swabia. The most important secular and ecclesiastical offices of Currätien were increasingly filled with German influence, and German influence also made itself felt among the people. Yet the Romance population and culture retained their ancestral character. Still in the 8th century the nobility was Romance, and according to Campell (1509-1582) in the Pfäfers monastery at the beginning of the 10th century Romance was still current alongside the German language, indeed still around 1530 older people in Malans used the Rhaetian idiom. But Romance maintained itself much longer in the secluded valleys, such as precisely in the Tamina valley. Thus Ebel (1810) reports in his “Guide to Traveling Switzerland” (p. 25): “Vättis inhabitants still greeted the inhabitants of Tamins in Graubünden in Rhaetian a generation ago, and understood this very well.”

If we now also possess no closer historical data about the settlements of the Rhaetian element in the Tamina valley, we nevertheless encounter it today still in a larger number of place and field names. In this connection the fact also emerges that these Romance settlements held preferentially to the lower locations of the valley, and especially to the magnificent terraces, the remnants of the old West Rhine bottom, since there larger areas were available for cultivation and grass farming (Pfäfers, Valens, Vasön), while the village of Vättis shows a typical “nest location,” similar to Ragaz, Mels, Plons, Berschis and Flums. Here and there the stepped broken fall of the left Tamina bank was also used for settlement, as at Vasön, even if only for a stable building. It is therefore in the almost north-south running Tamina valley (as in the Weisstannen valley) not the sunnier eastern exposure that drew the settlements to the left riverside, but solely the topographical location (terrace landscape).

I have already compiled the majority of the Romance place and field names on an earlier occasion, partly also according to information from teacher Ludwig Jäger (†) and reproduce them below in footnote.41

Around the middle or toward the end of the 14th century, a secondary colonization phase made itself felt in a part of Currätien, that is, an immigration of foreign elements, which only in recent times has enjoyed a very thorough investigation by historians, ethnographers and anthropologists. This is the immigration and settlement by the so-called free Walser. We cannot here, for reasons of space, engage in the lively discussion of the origin of this remarkable people, and refer to the newest works by Branger,42 Hoppeler43 and Wettstein.44 So much seems correct today, “that it concerns daughter colonies of the mother colonies Davos, Rheinwald, Obersaxen founded in the last quarter of the 13th century by Germans of Alemannic stock who immigrated from the Upper Valais.” A descent from Rhaetian blood is increasingly disputed today.

Already in 1398 we encounter in the register of the county of Sargans the designation “Walseler,” “Walleser,” “Walser,” who in contrast to the subject resident population were considered as “herkommen lütt,” “frömbde, herkommen lütt, die da fry oder Walser sind” [foreign people who are free or Walser]. The same Sargans register knows their dwelling places: Matug (in the Gonzen area), Swendi (Schwendi-Weisstannen), Wisstann (Weisstannen), Fölteserberg (Vilterserberg), then around the middle of the 14th century in Calfeisen, in the Gigerwald, on the estates Vasön, Bläs, Pradon, on Sampans (St. Margretenberg). In the Calfeisental the following settlements are named: the rear and front Sardona, Hensli Tönis front Sardona, Cläwi Tonis farmstead called the Riet, Bertschis farmstead called Riet, the Zumppen farmstead, the barren Büel, Bandligen farmstead and the Egg. Perhaps the estates and alps: Wympsers Berg, Ebni, Sannt Marti (St. Martin), Kugadenstat also belonged to them. Later we encounter the names Sardonen, Rathausboden, rear and front Ebene, Ammannsboden, Brennhütte, Wiesli, Wetterstoffel, Stegensässli, St. Martin, Gigerwald. Older Walser family names are also: “Cüni Tontli, Willi ab dem Berg, Peter Arnolz, Jäcli von Sardon, Pantlion, Niclaus, Peter, Johannes and Johannes the widow’s sons of Kalueys,” “Michel in Gigerwald, Pantli and Marti Nufer and Cunraden Nufer, the latter’s nephew,” “Walliser usser Galues” (Calfeisen). It is very probable that the alpine settlement “Vättnerberg,” still inhabited in summer until around New Year’s at about 1600 m elevation, was once a Walser settlement, as it still forms today as the Vättnerberg cooperative an actual mountain village in group and individual houses along with stables.45

The actual reasons why the free Walser settled for the first time around the middle of the 14th century precisely on the then probably almost impenetrable wilderness in the rearmost Calfeisental will probably remain hidden from us for all times. Today only conjectures can be made. As a result of the increasingly widespread feudal rule, the class of small free landowners slowly disappeared; the number of serfs and rent-paying people constantly increased. — The wilderness of the Calfeisen valley, which was probably only hunting grounds of the counts and abbots, formed unproductive territory that was not profitable for the landlords. The freedom-loving Walser turned there, and the landlords, the counts and the Pfäfers monastery, were wise enough to let them be, since the territory gained value through cultivation, especially as the Walser, who were granted and documented personal freedoms and rights (“Walser rights”) and received the territory wrested from the wilderness as eternal, freely transferable hereditary lease, could at least be obligated to pay annual payments in kind to the Pfäfers monastery as well as military service. — Although the Walser in Calfeisen had no independent court, since “Twing und Bann” [coercion and ban] as well as the high courts were assigned to Freudenberg. But they could take care of community affairs themselves under the chairmanship of an Ammann [bailiff]. Still today a locality behind St. Martin is called “Ammannsboden,” and on the western Sardona alp side lies on a terrace the “Rathausboden,” where the foundation remains of the former Walser settlement can still be seen.46 A cemetery was also located on “Ammannsboden.”

The free Walser of the Calfeisental are described as a strong, strong-willed little people whose individual representatives in body size should have significantly exceeded other mortals and especially the Rhaeto-Romans. Hence so much is spoken of the giants in the Calfeisental, whose remains can still be seen partly in the small charnel house at the chapel of St. Martin. Already in 1900 I examined and anthropologically measured the largest part of the then still existing human skeletal bones, especially skulls and extremities. It turned out that the still existing parts by no means belonged to giant figures of humans, but that the extremities (humeri and femora) suggest individuals of medium body size (up to 168 centimeters). It is claimed, however, that the largest bones were long stolen before 1900 by “Englishmen” and other “curiosity lovers” and disappeared forever in their backpacks! — On the occipital bones of the skulls I noticed even then the strong roughness for the attachment of the neck muscles. They are proof of the presence of strong neck muscles that these people possessed, since they certainly had to carry heavy loads (hay bundles etc.).

Although the free Walser were spared from oppressive taxes and levies and thus were not “under the yoke of pursuing bailiffs,” a slow emigration and depopulation of the Calfeisental nevertheless occurred over time, which began already in 1385, and is documented by records from 1477 and 1488, as well as from 1511 and 1513 and also later until 1600.47 In this process the properties were sold to outsiders (from the March, from the Gaster and from Weesen). At the beginning of the 17th century the valley might have been virtually quite depopulated. The last inhabitant, Joh. Suter, died there on July 15, 1709, 84 years old (according to Ebel, handwritten estate in the Zurich State Archive), while L. Jäger names 1615 as the year of death of the last Walser woman to die and be buried in Calfeisen, Catharina Sutter. A number of Walser did not move far away, but remained in the Tamina valley, in Vättis, Valens, Vasön, acquired property there and mixed with the resident manorial and monastery people. A multitude of legends (giants) point to this mixing. (The people in Tschenner near Vasön.) Descendants of these Walser still live today in the families Jäger, Kohler, Bonderer, Nigg, Riederer etc. Others, such as Bandlin, Törii, Locher, Bertsch, Lenz, Giger, Suter are also still represented in the Sarganser region today.

People have often argued about the discussion of the causes of this emigration and made great efforts to create clarity in this matter. It has often been connected with a deterioration of climatic conditions (legends!) then with the Reformation or with a plague period (1349). But it may well have been primarily economic and purely commercial reasons that drew the free Walser to more favorable and comfortable living conditions down in the valley and allowed them to exchange their rougher soil without pain and too great concerns for greater security of existence. Thus it became quiet back in the valley, and although today in summertime herd bells ring out from the alps there from all sides, which again gladly stimulates the lonely wanderer, it whispers mysteriously in the echoing of the legends around the “Walser cottage” in the front plain of former life and activity, of happiness and sorrow of a primal people.

Thus it also happens that, as the Rhaeto-Romance landmarks in village and field names continue to live down in the valley today, up in the heights48 the German Walser name maintains its rule almost everywhere (with the exception of the highest peaks, whose names are of older origin). I once investigated all the alp and individual locality names of the alps with the herdsmen, and in my written compilations I find hardly 1/100 Romance names recorded.

According to settlement, we thus see the Romans establish themselves in groups of houses on the lower mountain slope; the Walser follow them with individual farmsteads in the heights. If, as W. Manz says, “the interaction of the nature of the land and folk tradition is reflected in today’s house form,” then in this respect the Rhaeto-Romance influence can still be traced, for example in Vättis, even though the most diverse gradations and transitions to the eastern Swiss country house come to expression in a predominant way. Here the folk mixing has indeed entered a stage where it also had to make itself essentially noticeable in the manner of house construction.

For centuries the valley region of Calfeisen and the Tamina stood under the sovereignty of the Pfäfers monastery. With the abolition of the Sargans bailiffship in 1798 and the abolition of the named monastery (1838), the inhabitants of this region also entered into the free rights of the other Swiss cantons.49

V. Topography of the Cave.

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The various illustrations (cf. 6 and 8) show us the Dragon Cave with its high-vaulted rock portal at the foot of the over 80 m high eastern rock wall of the Dragon’s Head, the uppermost part of the Dragon Mountain. The absolute sea level height of the cave entrance is not indicated in the topographical map (Vättis sheet). The curve passing by there points to the figure 2340. I have determined the actual height in ten measurements taken at completely different times using an excellent aneroid barometer (0-2500 m) taking into account all corrections at exactly 2445 m at the level of the entrance to the foremost cave. The height of the narrow rock path that runs along the foot of the rock wall amounts to 2440 m, so that one has to climb 5 m from here up to under the actual cave portal (Fig. 10).

The entire formation and topography of the Dragon Cave is relatively very simple. It does not form, like many other caves, a richly branched system of passages, shafts, tubes, tunnels, chimneys, floors etc. lying beside, behind and above one another. Rather, as the accompanying ground plan, elevation and cross-section sketches50 show, it is on the whole a tunnel-like, underground passage with a single front opening, a rock window and a blind termination at a rock wall at the back. The Dragon Cave is therefore not a through-cave, but a so-called blind cave (according to A. Penck, Morphology of the Earth’s Surface, II, 448). With the exception of the entrance and the rear termination, the base of the floor surface forms nearly a horizontal plane. Also in the longitudinal direction the cave keeps to almost one and the same axis, which runs in an almost exactly west-easterly direction (280° WNW—ESE 100° geographical). Only the entrance and former crawl-through from the large front cave to the second smaller section as well as the rearmost rooms show a small deviation from the indicated direction.51

Let us now turn to the brief description of the cave. If we have divided it for the purpose of our excavations and for the designation of the find material into three larger caves (I, II, III) and three smaller ones (IV, V, VI), this also corresponds entirely to the topographical conditions. Naturally, these undergo a change through our excavations insofar as we transport the entire searched cave floor debris after processing out of the cave and down over the rock slope lying before the Dragon Cave. The cave is thereby enlarged in volume capacity. We thereby obtain at the same time a vivid picture of the former spatial conditions in the individual cave sections at the time of their original settlement by humans. It shows thereby that particularly the access to sections II and III and the stay in them must have been entirely unhindered and, because of the pronounced protection from air currents, water inflow, moisture and cold, quite pleasant for the people of that time. The location of the cave itself in its majestic height and seclusion offered, besides the rapid overview into the depths of the alpine terrace lying before it, also full protection from attack by wild animals.

A first glance at the high-vaulted rock portal of the Dragon Cave (Fig. 9) elicits from almost every visitor the question whether this entrance portal was not created by human hands. He gets the same impression again when he has overcome the few foot-steps that we have dug into the debris we have brought out and now finds himself in the middle of a natural room that is almost reminiscent of the side aisle of a Gothic church, vaulted above in a pointed arch, whose rearmost part is shrouded in mysterious darkness and leads as if to a hidden crypt (Fig. 11). But if he turns his gaze around toward the cave exit, which is at the same time the entrance, one of those pictures confronts him as only caves possess in the sharp contrasts of light and dark, day and night (Fig. 12). Between the finely serrated cave wall edges floods a wall of light inward. The eye reaches down to the bottom of the valley, where a silver stripe of the young Tamina still flashes brightly. Directly before it blinks up the bright green of the high-lying Gelbberg terrace, and over the Calanda foothills disappearing in the bluish daytime veil spreads far in the distance in the east the magnificent snow and glacier field of the Silvretta. Over 7 m high builds up the strongly weathered rock portal, pointed at the top into a rock fissure. Our geological observation will show that here, as in the formation of the front large cave, nature alone with its restlessly active helpers, weathering and frost splitting, has been at work. It remained for humans merely to protect themselves from the larger ceiling collapses that occurred here from time to time by knocking down the loosely hanging parts with a long branch or a young larch trunk, as we still do before our cave excavations for our own safety.

Under gradual enlargement of the cross-section, about 4 m wide in the middle, the first cave widens to the right, turning somewhat northward, to a proper dome structure of nearly the same height (about 5½ m) as in the middle part. The floor area also increases toward the back up to 8.5 m in the dome structure. The total length of this first front cave section amounts to around 27 m. The dome structure, slowly rising toward the back in its floor surface, contains in its southern and northern side and ceiling sections several basin-like concavities that look like vortex-like hollow forms in reverse position. But if one seeks here the place of the once outflowing water, it turns out each time to be a blindly ending roundish cleft through which no larger quantity of water could ever have moved. On the western rear wall we perceive a niche more than 2 m deep and about 1 m high that almost gives the impression as if it were hewn out of the rock by human hands (Fig. 11 in the middle at the back).

A wonderful sight under certain lighting conditions is afforded by the cave walls, especially on the south side, as they are densely covered in places by the luminous green of cave mosses and lichens. Even in the pale twilight of the dome structure, a vivid green gleams on the terminal wall touched lightly by the rays of outside light. As hardly anywhere else in a cave, it shows here in the Dragon Cave most beautifully that chlorophyll in its formation depends on the presence of light and that, as L. Lämmermayr says in his significant treatises “The Green Plant World of Caves”52, “proportional to the progressive weakening of light, a change also takes place in the composition of the plant species colonizing the cave walls.” The light measurement methods of the Viennese botanist J. Wiesner53 have been applied by Lämmermayr with the best success, particularly in the Dragon Cave in Styria, using Wiesner’s hand isolator. The striking contrast of the external flora (before the cave portal) with the flowerless plants exploiting the weakest light rays in the cave parts still accessible to light also makes itself noticeable in our Dragon Cave.

Outside on the slope of Dragon Mountain, barely a few meters from the cave entrance, bloom the color-joyful children of the alpine flora (Dryas octopetala, Gentiana verna, Soldanella alpina, Aster alpinus, Ranunculus alpestris, Saxifraga Aizoon and S. oppositifolia, Thlaspi rotundifolium, Viola calcarata, Hutchinsia alpina, Alchemilla alpina, Parnassia palustris etc.). On the vertical rock walls of the Dragon’s Head lying nearest to the cave, a typical rock flora has settled (Primula Auricula, Silene acaulis, Saxifraga Aizoon, S. bryoides, S. muscoides and S. caesia, Campanula pusilla, Cerastium alpinum and Arenaria ciliata, Draba aizoides, Gaya simplex and others). Yes, even the magnificently green cushion plant with the white flowers scattered around the debris-covered ascent to the cave was until recently clothed by a veritable tall herb forest of monkshood (Aconitum Napellus) as well as the evergreen saxifrage (Saxifraga aizoides) mixed with alpine bluegrass (Poa alpina and P. alpina var. vivipara). Sharp as a razor under the cave portal, this partly ruderal light flora cuts off, and only the alpine rockcress (Arabis alpina) and Robert’s cranesbill (Geranium Robertianum) dare to venture still shyly at the debris foot of the beginning cave wall a few meters inward. Then the reign of the flowering plants is over. In their place step only, deeply anchored in rock crevices, as luminously green tufts the northern maidenhair spleenwort (Asplenium trichomanes) and the brittle bladder fern (Cystopteris fragilis). Already after a few meters these are replaced by densely cushioned mosses and finely lobed lichens in all colors.54 The gradual light requirements and the individual adaptability of the individual species can be followed very nicely in the change of light selection from front to back in the first cave room. At the very back, where only traces of scattered (diffuse) daylight manage to steal in, there still lies on the cave walls a light green or white down of fine mosses or lichens, probably also associated with algae. But this mysterious life cuts off razor-sharp where the dark shadow of the front cave wall strikes the farthest back places of the cave termination. Only when one looks closer does the eye perceive on the lusterless rock still dull green, fine threads that overspinne the projections on the surface like with a web, the prothalli of luminous mosses. The golden green gleam that rests on the delicate sheet-like moss formations comes from the sparse light rays reflected back from the background of the chlorophyll bodies. Thus the gradual fading of organic life, which links itself to the living conditions with the precision of the finest mechanism, belongs to the wonders of the “world below ground.” — There are still many of them, and the exploration of the “light-deprived” also requires a thorough study.

To the left of the dome structure we perceive in the background of the large cave near the floor (in Fig. 11) the dark crawl-through into the innermost cave chambers, formerly passable only in a crawling position. It measured at the foremost narrowest part before the excavation little more than one meter in width and about half a meter in height with a length of 5 meters. Today it is completely excavated, so that one can now enter comfortably in an upright position into the rapidly widening cave II. It represents a dome-like vaulted room with several shafts up to 5 meters high, and is intersected by various gaping cracks in the ceiling. Its total length amounts to likewise 5 meters, the greatest width in the middle of the longitudinal axis almost 5½ meters. On the walls we encounter already sheet-like, whitish-yellow sinter deposits, also the finer rock furrows are interspersed with such, and only the deepest cracks contain larger quantities of hardened lime sinter. Actual larger stalactite formations, also stalagmites are completely absent and were also not found in the now likewise completely cleared cave floor debris. A peculiar and striking phenomenon encounters us on the rock ceiling of the crawl-through to the second underground chamber, there where it formerly approached to within half a meter of the surface of the former cave floor existing before the excavation. This ceiling section is completely level and looks perfectly smoothed, so that one involuntarily asks oneself whether man did not have his hand in the game in the smoothing of the rock ceiling, which he certainly approached closely with his head when entering and exiting due to the height. Also found on this ceiling right at the smoothest places are quite peculiar pit-like scratches of very regular shape, which are partly lined with fine yellowish lime sinter. In places it seems, however, as if one were dealing with fine linear etchings (corrosion) of the carbonic acid-containing sinter water. The matter is striking in any case, because until today nowhere in the entire cave system of the Dragon Cave could a similar rock surface be found. — To the left, southern side of this room the rock wall runs deep obliquely downward, so that it always gives the appearance as if larger cavities were located further down. — We will provide the necessary information about the nature of the floor debris accumulation later.

Just as in the front larger cave section, so the western rock wall of the second cave sinks toward the back to the ground, indeed leaves free again a crawl-through over 2 meters wide, but also only half a meter high, which measures about 2 meters in its length. In a crawling position we now reach a room again larger in surface area, cave III. Its ceiling forms a flatly spanned arch of 2.9 meters height at the highest point. The length of the room amounts to somewhat over 17 meters, the width in the rear third somewhat over 5 meters. Its main axis runs parallel with that of cave I (280° WNW—OSO 100°). The walls are likewise partly covered with sinter deposits in small quantities. In quite striking fashion, especially the ceiling rock of this cave possesses a multitude of karstic furrows, which have developed to great beauty even on horizontal sections. A large number of smaller and larger concavities in the cave rock points to a former stronger percolation of the rock by the chemically corroding water. These hollow forms, however, nowhere assume the extent as is the case in the dome structure of cave I. Once again this section also closes toward the back and leaves free only a very narrow crawl-through into the two following small, only sack-like widenings and finally into the terminal cave. This last one, only 5 meters long, 2½ meters wide and 3.6 meters high section VI lies like the two small caverns preceding it somewhat deeper than the three foremost caves, and its longitudinal axis turns toward NW—SO. Its walls are lined with spherical lime sinter formations, small stalactites and pointed scalenohedral calcite crystals. On its ceiling is located a peculiar, sharply ribbed, skeleton-like weathered rock formation that has quite the shape of a boy’s kite. Of a further continuation of this small terminal room, which barely allows proper movement, one can observe nothing, so that we have before us here the visible termination of the Dragon Cave. The total length of all 6 caves can be given as around 65-70 meters.

If we earlier thought of the interesting cave flora, it can be added at the conclusion of the general description of the spatial conditions that cave sections II, III and those up to the terminal room lack any chlorophyll-containing organisms, since the light reduction, already increased at the entrance to the second cave, finally passes into complete darkness. How far perhaps such lichens and algae (blue-green algae and others) known from the newest research of Lämmermayr have also settled in our Dragon Cave, our further investigations will show. — We will come to speak of the present animal world in the Dragon Cave and its surroundings only later in our preliminary treatise.

VI. Meteorological and Climatic Conditions.

These are generally determined by the absolute altitude, the exposure of the cave and its internal structure. Although it has not been possible to date to obtain complete observation series from the Dragon Cave over a longer period of time, at least some general information about the meteorological conditions may follow here.55

According to its absolute altitude, the Dragon Cave at 2445 m belongs, like the Säntis summit which it reaches to within 60 m, to the level of the high-altitude climate of the Alpine mountains. — For Dragon Mountain therefore all the conditions also appear that are characteristic of the climate of the heights in general. (Decrease in air pressure and air temperature, increase in the intensity of solar radiation and heat radiation, greater effect of insolation, relatively high ground temperature and air dryness, increase in annual precipitation in general, etc. [according to J. Hann, Handbook of Climatology, I, High-altitude Climate, pp. 194-313]).

The elevation of the Dragon Cave (2445 m) places it in the climate of the summit stations of our Swiss meteorological observation network, primarily that of the Säntis station (2504 m), whose height corresponds exactly to that of the upper edge of the eastern Dragon Mountain wall. According to this, we may in general, according to the judgment of Director Dr. J. Maurer (kind written communication), without great deviation from the truth, apply at least the general data as we find them in the table on the “average annual temperature in the various altitude levels of the northern slope of the Swiss Alps” (Climate of Switzerland,56 Vol. I, p. 154) to the Dragon Cave as well. According to J. Maurer (written communication), this yields for the altitude of 2400 m an average annual temperature of about -1.3 degrees C, in winter on average -8.4, in spring -3.1, in summer +6.4, in autumn 0.0 degrees. Thus the laws of general temperature decrease with increasing altitude levels apply to the Dragon Cave altitude as they do for the Alpine climate in general. It must be taken into account that Dragon Mountain, as one of the southern foothills of the Graue Hörner and particularly of their culmination point, Piz Sol, is in a very exposed position, especially toward the south, west and east, as is the Alp Gelbberg [Alp Yellow Mountain] located below Dragon Mountain toward the east and south. Although winter throws heavy loads of snow, so that the Gelbberg hut becomes almost completely snowed in, here and on the south slope of Dragon Mountain a relatively earlier snow melting takes place than in other places of the neighboring mountains. Due to the steepness of the slopes, the Calfeisen and Tamina valleys are known to be extraordinarily rich in avalanches.

We encounter a peculiar meteorological phenomenon in the rock gorge St. Peter (876 m) mentioned several times already, located a short hour below Vättis at the northern valley exit, where the Vättner valley closes itself hermetically toward the north and where only a narrow passage still leaves room for the Tamina and the country road located somewhat above it. — This rock gorge is characterized year in, year out by constant air currents and by a much lower temperature than the village of Vättis. At this location we find particularly on the southeast side the lowest point of the mountain pine, which otherwise gains its dominion only at 1600 m and even higher. A whole number of genuine alpine plants also colonize the nearby rocks there (e.g. Primula Auricula, Potentilla caulescens, Saxifraga Aizoon, S. caesia, Globularia cordifolia). Without doubt this involves a rock barrier with constant accumulation of cold air (a “cold” or “frost pocket”). The location would be worth a more precise investigation of temperatures (by means of thermograph).

Just as the valley region of Vättis57 enjoys relatively little cloud cover in winter, this applies especially also to the surrounding heights, where the cloud cover is significantly less than in summer. According to my observations, Dragon Mountain and the neighboring Vättnerkopf are also in summer the least shrouded in clouds compared to the other peaks. Often it is only thin fog caps that sit on the uppermost parts of the two mountains, while e.g. the Dragon Cave is completely free of clouds.

In addition to all this, these heights, like at times also the valley of Vättis, are subject to the peculiar anomaly of vertical temperature distribution in mountains and mountain regions, which is called “temperature inversion.” It is the phenomenon “that during clear nights, then in winter during calm weather the valleys are colder than the slopes and peaks of the enclosing mountains up to a certain height” (J. Hann, Handbook of Climatology I, p. 221). This “temperature inversion” was, as Hann says, “formerly little known, also mostly only briefly mentioned as a meteorological curiosity, but now this climatic favoring of high-altitude locations is familiar to almost everyone and becomes annually for many thousands of city dwellers a source of high natural enjoyment and a true strengthening of health damaged by lack of air and poor city air.” — We know the “temperature inversion” very well from St. Gallen. Dark fogs often spread in and over the city for weeks. If we then climb in November, December and also still in January to the neighboring Appenzell heights, there reigns above “a sunny, wondrous splendor; we step into a brilliant landscape, surrounded by a mild but dry, wonderfully stimulating atmosphere and enjoy to the full a warmer heavenly air, in comparison with that which is to be found in the Alpine heights over 2000 m on clear, calm summer days.” (J. Maurer, Climate of Switzerland, I, p. 163.)58.

The cause of the abnormal vertical temperature distribution, whereby the cold air layers lie below in the valley, the warm ones above on the heights, is according to Hann to be sought in the nocturnal heat radiation of the ground. “The resulting cooling of the ground also communicates itself to the air layers lying on and over it, and since cold air is heavier than warm, the coldest air layers come to lie next to the ground during calm weather. The higher layers cool little, since the heat radiation of the air is much less than that of the ground and the vegetation that may cover it” (Hann).

It has long been known to the inhabitants of Vättis that besides the often weeks-long brightness of the mountains lying above the valley in wintertime, the phenomenon of inverted temperatures also prevails on the large upper terraces and old valley floors of Gelbberg (2076 m), the Alp Ladils — Vättnerälpli (1896 m), Vättnerberg (1691 m) and Vindels (1650 m), which are situated in front of Dragon Mountain, Vättner- or Aelplikopf and Monteluna. Hence it comes that in former times the communal alp Vättnerberg was also inhabited in winter. Still today the departure from the alp or “from the mountain” takes place relatively very late. (Before Christmas.)

Like Dragon Mountain itself, so the cave, as already a glance at our illustration shows, is also located near its culmination point in a very exposed position. Since the cave portal is directed exactly toward the east, it is illuminated by the sun from sunrise until its culmination at midday, yes in the morning the sun’s rays can still reach a part of the front cave in its interior. At midday from 12 o’clock to 12:15 they just graze the last parts of the east rock wall of the Dragon’s Head. According to our observations during the excavations in the months of July, August and September, in fine weather the rock wall of the Dragon’s Head is also very strongly warmed on the east side during the morning and the stay in the front part of the first cave is extremely pleasant, especially since the air dryness is considerable, which is particularly evident in the dusty weathering of the cave wall rock.

According to the topographical description, the Dragon Cave is a passage cave, a kind of tube with only one opening. Furthermore, the floor surface of the cave lies nearly horizontal with the exception of the entrance from outside into the first cave as well as the terminal sections (IV-VI). According to this formation, the meteorological conditions of the entire cave system are also oriented.

Due to the absence of a double opening in the sense of a through-cave, we do not encounter strong ventilation of the individual caves and their parts. The air movements are accordingly extraordinarily weak and detectable only by means of finer arrangements (fine threads, paper scraps, candle flame), yes even only through tobacco smoke or fire smoke. These weaker air movements in the Dragon Cave are caused only by the exchange of outside and inside warmth or = cold. In cave I the differences between outside and inside air are therefore consistently greater than among the individual cave parts themselves. At times it happens that the temperatures of the outside air and that of cave I approach each other very closely.

Due to the unhindered connection of the two air spaces, the winter cold can therefore become complete master of the first cave. Thus the seepage water present in it and in its rock can freeze. We could therefore under given conditions, i.e. insofar as water still seeps through the rock in winter, particularly in the period of snow melting on the Dragon’s Head, encounter larger ice formations in the first cave. Until now these have admittedly not been proven, since the ascent and access to the cave in wintertime has not yet been undertaken. But we know with certainty that the floor accumulation freezes during winter.

At the beginning of our earliest excavations (early July 1918) and even in the month of August we found during the floor excavations in the passage from the first to the second cave and still somewhat in the second cave itself at about 1.6 m depth typical frozen layer parts with granular ice formations. This ice naturally still came from the preceding year or from a series of years. While the penetrating summer warmth is able to thaw ice and ground to a certain depth each time, the deeper floor debris parts remain in a frozen state throughout the entire year. With the ice still present in July and August in the debris floor it is therefore very probably a matter, as in genuine ice caves, of permanent ice that never came to melting. Already at the end of cave II (entrance II to III) we encountered no more ice down to the white clay floor, so that it is certain that frost cannot penetrate so far at all. The deeper layers of the first and those of the entrance to the second cave are generally characterized by greater moisture of the sinter and earth material, because here in the summer months the melting process of the floor debris ice has just come to an end. The upper layers, on the other hand, have then already become dry.

At the end of the second and in the entire cave III we already encounter an approach to the so-called constant cave temperature. This moves according to general experience and also according to my precise measurements in a series of caves in the Säntis area (e.g. in the large Furgglen cave under the “Houses” in the Säntis mountains (1580 m)) around 3.0-3.5 degrees Celsius. In the inner chambers furthest from the entrance, the temperature thus remains the same throughout the entire year with very small fluctuations of only 0.2-0.5° C. The fluctuations themselves can only be determined reliably by means of centesimal thermometers and with elimination of the smallest sources of error. — With greater depth extension of caves that are not through-caves, the rearmost parts of them thus correspond to localities with a “milder local climate” (Lämmermayr).

On July 3, 1903 I noted the following temperature conditions (2 o’clock midday, all shade temperatures, weather completely bright and warm, calm):

At the rock before the ascent to the cave 13.4° C
At the entrance to cave I 7.1° C
In the dome structure (21 m behind the entrance) 6.0° C
In cave II (middle) 4.1° C
In cave III 3.8° C
In cave IV 3.5° C
In cave VI (rearmost) 3.1° C

Later measurements yielded from caves III-VI only the mentioned small fluctuations of 0.2-0.5 degrees.

For comparison I add here the temperature measurements from August 20, 1920 (11 o’clock morning, fog, rain, then hail):

Temperature at the rock wall before the ascent 3.2° C
Temperature under the cave entrance 4.9° C
Temperature middle of cave I 4.5° C
Temperature in the rear part of the dome 4.7° C
Temperature entrance from cave I to II 4.2° C
Temperature middle of cave II 3.8° C
Temperature entrance to cave III 3.6° C
Temperature in cave III 3.5° C

From the just completed excavation campaign of 1921 may the following temperatures noted each time in finest weather (calm föhn conditions) find acceptance here (in degrees Celsius):

  August 9, 1921 August 17, 1921 August 19, 1921
1. Rock wall before the ascent: 1:30 PM 9:15 AM 9:15 AM
direct insolation 23.2 15.5 26.4
shade 19.8 11.2 19.9
2. Entrance to cave I 13.5 12.2 15.2
3. Middle cave I 9.1 6.0 7.0
4. Dome structure cave I (rear above) 9.8 6.7 7.6
5. In cave II 5.5 4.4 4.5
6. In cave III 4.0 3.8 3.6
7. In cave III (rearmost) 3.2 3.0 2.8

What temperature conditions the well-tempered west side of Dragon Mountain enjoys may be proven by the indication that the thermometer on September 14, 1921, at 5½ o’clock evening, showed 20.2° in full sunshine, 11.7° C in shade.

From this we see how the fluctuations in the front cave parts are greater, those of the rear parts only still small. The constancy of the temperatures of the inner cave parts II-VI is easily explained by the fact that they, as long as no excavations took place, possessed through the ceiling-wall barriers of their rear closures relatively narrow, or little high crawl-throughs, which strongly isolated the individual parts and thereby prevented the penetration of outside temperatures. In the shafts or chimneys of sections II-VI the temperatures are always 1.5-3.2 degrees C higher than on the floor, because the warmer air collects in them and finds no outlet.

From what has been said it emerges with certainty that the rear cave parts of the Dragon Cave cannot possess ice formations in the form of ice stalactites and stalagmites or sheet ice, even not in the severest winters. Even in the rearmost, sack-like sinking parts, due to the constantly remaining temperature of 3.0° C, no ice can form, as is otherwise the case in sack caves. The Dragon Cave therefore, despite its significant sea level elevation, does not belong to the ice caves in the sense of Kraus59, Fugger60, Lohmann61, Futterer62, Crammer63 and others. On the other hand, there is no doubt that ice formations occur in colder winters, despite the influence of temperature inversion, in cave I in the form of hanging and standing ice. By analogy with the “ice palace” in the Wildkirchli, floor or standing ice formations should also be found in the dome structure of the Dragon Cave, while hanging ice (stalactites) cannot develop on the ceiling of the dome, since the temperature in the dome vault remains above freezing point.

The most rapid air exchange in the Dragon Cave thus takes place in the front-opening cave I. On cooler days one easily notices a partial outflow of the warmer cave air in the upper part of cave I, while colder air streams in from outside at the floor, which can easily be proven through smoke experiments. Peculiar phenomena occur particularly when strong west, southwest and south winds rush down over the Dragon’s Head outside in front of the cave, causing a veritable sucking out of the air from the front large cave. During persistent stronger föhn wind one can very clearly observe under the cave portal this sudden falling down of the wind over the east rock wall of Dragon Mountain, whereby then the air current turns toward the opening of the cave, thus in the opposite direction from the original, so that it appears as if a strong east wind were blowing into the cave. (Cf. also: O. Grashey, Practical Handbook for Hunters, 3rd ed., page 45, illustration and text page 46.) Very interesting is furthermore the significant acoustic amplification of this wind fall, which is still perceived in the rear cave parts as a mighty roaring and “thrusting” that can intensify to thunder-like sound.

During longer fine weather the Dragon Cave in its front larger parts is characterized by relative dryness, also the floor debris then contains nowhere great moisture. Quite different, however, when strong and persistent atmospheric precipitation or thunderstorms occur. They then make themselves noticeable after a short time in the front cave (I), since there due to the fragmentation of the rock its water permeability is greatest. The new wooden water trough set up by us in this room, which catches the drip water necessary for feeding the acetylene lamps and whose content amounts to about 1/3 m³, has filled completely several times during the considerable precipitation in the months of July and August 1920. During the dry periods we had to have water carried up every day from Gelbberg to the Dragon Cave. — Since the floor debris of the first cave is rich in rock fragments and these are very water-permeable, the water flows relatively quickly through them and along the rocky cave floor outward. This also explains the relatively low content of this floor accumulation in solid sinter residues.

The conditions are completely different in the inner cave parts. In caves II and III, the next largest in content and extent, we could observe virtually no seepage water inflow during our excavations from 1917-1920 even during longer rainy weather; we could get to know these cave parts as thoroughly dry rooms. The cave moisture that became noticeable as a result of penetration of the fog still completely filling cave I was each time only of short duration. A part of slight air humidity also comes from the evaporation taking place in every cave. More precise descriptions of these peculiar conditions will be given in the main work on the Dragon Cave.

The same striking dryness also makes itself felt — which is of essential significance — in the floor debris layers of caves II and III. The upper ones of these up to about the second lowest show great friability and softness, which justify the conclusion that also at the time of their deposition in prehistoric times great air dryness must have prevailed up there. Only the base layer in II and III, the mighty white clay deposit (see section Floor Accumulation) testifies to a longer duration of strong chemical corrosion and water supply in the somewhat deeper lying inner cave parts, where the water and clay formations accumulated in a kind of smaller reservoir basin, because the water could not or only very scantily flow away.

In wintertime the entire west, south and east slope of Dragon Mountain is wrapped in a mantle of deep snow. Mighty cornices extend along the steep slope to the Dragon’s Head. The latter is covered with a gigantic snow cap, only its steep walls also cast their bright yellow gleam into the light-flooded high mountain landscape in wintertime. Into the cave itself the snow can barely penetrate a few meters deep, perhaps from the drift wind that chases the snow masses from the west over the Dragon’s Head, which then settle as fine dust veils on the east side before the cave entrance and are able to build up a snow wall in front of it, or the snow driven by east wind, which however never becomes of great significance. — The snow cover of the Dragon’s Head soon causes from the beginning of winter a relative cave dryness, because the atmospheric precipitation can then no longer seep through the rock of the cave covering. For the rest these heights of 2400-2500 m are characterized in winter, as already indicated, by greater brightness and relatively stronger and more persistent sunshine (insolation) than the lower-lying regions.

If we use these meteorological explanations to answer the question of how the living conditions in former times for humans and animals may have shaped themselves with regard to climatic conditions, the answer is favorable. Setting aside all finer demands of a culture-human living today, one could quite well vegetate in the Dragon Cave during the summer months of July, August and September from the climatic standpoint. We know with certainty that e.g. the snow mouse (Arvicola nivalis) has been a permanent inhabitant of the Dragon Cave, and that it preferably colonizes cave parts II and III, where it finds sufficient warmth.

Habitability of the Dragon Cave in wintertime under present conditions is naturally not to be thought of, even if one possessed good provisioning. Even to the most world-weary and misanthropic of the species Homo sapiens a permanent winter stay up there would hardly be advantageous despite the at times most magnificent natural phenomena. — How we are to think of things at the primeval time of man, we will later in this writing make somewhat comprehensible to the reader.

VII. On the Geology of the Graue Hörner-Ringelspitz-Calanda Area.

A. General geological conditions.

The Drachenlochhöhle owes its extraordinarily high elevation solely to the peculiar geological conditions prevailing in the area of the Calfeisen-Taminatal, that is, the mountain masses of the Graue Hörner-Ringelspitze and the Calanda. Understanding the formation of the cave, as well as the later elucidation of the age question of the prehistoric finds in this cave, is therefore bound to a description of the geology of the Drachenberg and its surroundings. We provide here only the most important and necessary data.

The entire area of the Graue Hörner, the Ringelspitz chain and the Calanda form part of the so-called Glarner Verrucano nappes (according to Albert Heim, Geology of Switzerland, Vol. II, pp. 387-395). Hardly anywhere else in the Alps do the facts of “nappe overthrusting” lie so clearly and distinctly before the eyes of the unprejudiced observer as in this partial nappe of the Helvetic nappes. Already 120 years ago, the peculiar inverted stratification of rock formations in the area of the Glarner Alps, where the youngest lie at the bottom and the older and very old at the top of the mountain, were discovered by Hans Conrad Escher v. d. Linth and later pursued more precisely by his son, the geologist Professor Arnold Escher v. d. Linth, and interpreted as overfolding and overthrusting. The most thorough study of this “Glarner Double Fold,” as it was then called, was subsequently carried out by Prof. Albert Heim in his classic work: “Mechanism of Mountain Building,” Vol. II (1879), as well as in the same researcher’s “High Alps between Reuss and Rhine”64 Later appeared the specialized works by K. Tolwinsky65 on the Graue Hörner, by M. Blumenthal66 on the Ringel-Segnes Group. The Calanda was first investigated by Prof. G. Theobald67, then by Chr. Piperoff68 and most recently by M. Blumenthal69. The special geological map 1:50,000 of this area is in press.70

Albert Heim and J. Oberholzer have devoted themselves to the western continuation of the Calanda-Graue Hörner-Ringelspitz area in the Weisstannen, Murgtal and Glarner areas as well as the revision of various manuscript maps. From them also comes the Geological Map of the Glarner Alps 1:50,000 (Special Map No. 50). The entire area has been covered until now by the already older Sheet XIV of the Geological Map of Switzerland (1:100,000).

The gradual transformation of the “Glarner Double Fold” (Arnold Escher v. d. Linth and Albert Heim) into the Glarner overfolding nappe or Glarner Verrucano nappe and its partial nappes has been described to us by Albert Heim71 himself, as well as by Arnold Heim72. The publications by Paul Arbenz and Walther Staub73 also belong to the realm of discussion about this area. A concise summary of the entire conditions and the newly recognized facts has been given by Albert Heim in his “Geology of Switzerland,” Vol. II (pp. 383-395), and J. Weber74 also provides in his “Geological Wanderings through Switzerland” (Vol. II) a vivid picture of the theories about the formation of the Glarner and St. Galler Oberland Alps for the non-geologist.75

![][image3]
Fig. 13. Geological profile through the Calfeisental.

![][image4]
Fig. 14. Geological profile through the Drachenberg.

Arnold Escher v. d. Linth and Albert Heim recognized that above the normally deposited, locally formed (autochthonous) basement of the Graue Hörner and Ringelspitz area, which are orographically separated from each other by the deeply incised Calfeisental, there once lay a massive mass of older rock — Verrucano — between Linth, Walensee and Rhine over younger and youngest rock formations. Through weathering and erosion, a large part of this overlying, double-fold-forming older Verrucano was then removed in the highest elevations of the Graue Hörner and the Ringelspitz chain, so that today’s culmination points of the northern fold (Piz Sol, Foostock), as well as those of the southern fold (Ringelspitze, Piz da Sterls, Trinserhorn, Piz Sardona, Piz Segnes, Vorab, Hausstock etc.) represent only remnants and ruins. Today one sees the mentioned Verrucano peaks, separated from each other like islands, rising as richly serrated, mighty impressive formations in razor-sharp overthrust surfaces above the younger mountain masses located beneath them. This impresses itself most beautifully on the eye when it roams from the height of the Sardona Glacier in a wide panoramic view. There we stand amidst this most magnificent phenomenon in the evolution of a splendid, multi-membered mountain landscape.76 What was formerly regarded, when one did not yet dare to think of certain movements in the superficial earth’s crust extended over large spaces, as a massive recumbent double fold with bilateral fronts (northern and southern fold), i.e., as “Glarner Double Fold,” has revealed itself through the recognition of even much greater movements, the nappe overthrusts (Bertrand-Schardt-Lugeon), as one unified nappe overthrust from south to north, which is today briefly termed the Glarner Nappe. Like a mighty saddle or a shield slightly arched in the middle, the 25-30 kilometer wide Verrucano nappe extends from its root in the Graubünden Rhine valley at a 20-25 degree incline northward up to Piz Segnes, Piz Sardona, Trinserhorn, Ringelspitze (3205 m), where its lower surface nearly reaches the height of 3000 m. Then it is suddenly interrupted by the Calfeisental lying at frightful depth. On its opposite northern side, the Verrucano nappe77 continues again in the Satzmartinshorn and Piz Sol (2835 m) of the Graue Hörner, and turns with 10-15 degrees dip northward to the Walensee and toward Mels, where between the Sernftal and the Walensee it already again possesses a full tectonic thickness of 1000-1800 m. Toward Ragaz in the northeast and in the Rhine valley (near Reichenau), however, the Verrucano is partly weathered away, partly it wedges out stratigraphically. There it is already covered by younger rock formations — Triassic and Liassic.

Already the first geological investigations, especially in the Glarner area, had yielded the recognition that the relatively much older Verrucano rock rests on the mighty framework of Eocene flysch masses that dominates the valleys everywhere up to great heights, i.e., on the youngest mountain formation of the region (Tertiary). This flysch characterizes itself in the landscape forms partly through gentle mountain shapes, partly through extraordinarily deep incisions, the result of productive erosion and weathering in the relatively much softer rock, which moreover distinguishes itself through more intensive folding and crenulation, often to indecipherable confusion.

At the nearly rectilinear, far-extending, sharply defined overthrust surface beneath the Verrucano peaks, i.e., at the contact surface of the youngest and oldest mountain rock formations, a peculiar intermediate rock formation had already been recognized at that time, the so-called Lochseitenkalk, which belonged neither to the Verrucano (above) nor to the flysch (below). As a mostly light, often almost white band of 0-10 m and even more thickness, one sees the Lochseitenkalk ascending to the highest elevations in the area between the dark, green and red Verrucano and the gray flysch shales often strongly lustrous at the surface. It is nothing other than a fibrous kneaded and rolled product transformed by mechanical forces (pressure and thrust), i.e., a marmorized, mylonitized upper Jurassic limestone (Malm).78

The Glarner nappe dips under the valley floor at the Walensee as a result of its eastern axial plunge. Westward it visibly wedges out near Linthtal (Heim, Geology, II., 264). We also obtain brief and sufficient information about the other nappes such as Säntis-Drusberg nappe, Räderten, Mürtschen, Axen, Wallenstadter intermediate nappe in Heim, Geology of Switzerland, Volume II (pp. 264-267) and in the table on p. 266, likewise about Permian (Verrucano) p. 268 ff.

As a result of the nappe overthrust theory, the newer investigations in the area of the Graue Hörner, the Ringel group and the Calanda by Tolwinsky, Blumenthal and J. Oberholzer have yielded various new results that point to an even more complicated structure of the mentioned mountain parts.

Besides the large Glarner overfolding nappe occupying the highest elevations, which claims the Verrucano as the oldest sediment of the so-called Helvetic nappes, there are found between the Verrucano and the actual flysch base not only the Lochseitenkalk still regarded as “inverted middle limb of the Glarner overthrust” (Heim), but there are, especially in the mountain parts bounding the Calfeisental to the south and north, special smaller overthrust fold nappes present as thrust parts. They consist for the most part of Cretaceous and upper Jurassic (Malm) and are assigned by Blumenthal and Tolwinsky to the area of parautochthonous folds79. We know them today as Tschepp-Panära-Orgel folds in the Ringel area and as Drachen overthrust (better Drachenberg overthrust!) in the Graue Hörner area. The Calanda too, this highly interesting but quite intricately constructed and not yet completely unraveled mountain chain, which in its autochthonous base stock forms the eastern end of the Aar massif, also belongs in its upper parts to the nappe-like overthrust mantle folds that extend through the mountain down to the Rhine. — Lower and upper Kaminspitz fold at the Calanda. — We cannot concern ourselves further here with the Glarner overfolding nappe as well as with the individual parautochthonous folds (except the Drachenberg overthrust) and refer to the study of the literature mentioned at the beginning, especially that of Tolwinsky and Blumenthal.

Let us now turn to the geological consideration of the Drachenberg and its immediate surroundings! We premise that already Arnold Escher v. d. Linth established the surprising fact that the Drachenberg known as the southeastern spur of Piz Sol toward the Calanda (Vättis) as well as the Aelplikopf adjoining it to the northeast (in the topographic map, Sheet Vättis) or the Vättnerkopf, as it is correctly called in popular usage, two sharply marked, peculiar mountain forms, likewise do not belong to the youngest earth-historical formations, the Tertiary flysch, like the Monte Luna located still further northeast. Rather, the two aforementioned mountains consist in their uppermost parts of Cretaceous limestone and some youngest Jurassic (Malm), which float on the autochthonous flysch of the region. Already Escher and then especially Heim (Mechanism of Mountain Building) assumed an isolated overfolding here, without determining more closely the process of the same and the origin of this limestone, which was also not possible at that time. — Only Tolwinsky and Blumenthal were able to lift the veil that had lain over these peculiar mountains on the basis of the most thorough exploration of the area. It emerged that not only the Drachenberg and Aelplikopf (Vättnerkopf) but also the upper part of the magnificent Gigerwaldspitz, which lies west of the Drachenberg and above the deeply incised gruesome Tersol gorge, represent special overthrust masses of Jurassic and Cretaceous that stand in no direct connection with the Glarner nappe (Verrucano). Indeed, it proved that the opposite massive steep escarpment of the Ringel chain, as well as that of the Calanda in the upper half, are traversed by such Jurassic-Cretaceous overthrusts, whose names we have already mentioned. — The conditions lie most clearly in the Drachenberg overthrust.

Before we pursue this more precisely, our gaze may turn here to the framework, the autochthonous mountain section of the Drachenberg and Vättner-kopf, which also corresponds to that of the Ringel chain and the Calanda. We do this best from the village of Vättis or from an elevated point near it on the Calanda side. There we see the autochthonous mountain in massive steep walls on the flanks of the Calanda, the eastern spurs of the Ringel chain (Orgeln, Simel) and the Graue Hörner (Drachenberg, Gigerwaldspitz, Vättnerkopf and Monte Luna) up to well over half the height. It is uniformly composed of crystalline formations and of sedimentary rocks of the Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary. With the exception of the deepest-lying central massif (pre-Triassic) crystalline shales and Verrucano-like rocks exposed right at the village of Vättis, the basal sedimentary mountain forms a mighty vault that can be clearly observed when looking into the Calfeisental. The strike direction of the vault runs northeast toward the Calanda, continues in this to the opposite Rhine valley (Ragaz-Chur). It also inclines somewhat toward the northwest. By the Tamina eroding out the vault crest that once spanned between the present valley sides down to the central massif, the structure of the vault itself was extraordinarily clearly displayed on today’s valley flanks. We have in the so-called autochthonous vault of Vättis the only place in Canton St. Gallen where erosion has gripped so deep that under the sedimentary deposits the uppermost part of the central massif, thus the oldest rocks, were drilled and exposed.

For reasons of space, we can give here only a very brief overview of the stratigraphy of the individual rock formations of the basal, autochthonous mountain and refer to the works by Tolwinsky and Blumenthal listed on page 47. We proceed from bottom to top:

  1. The crystalline, pre-Triassic base consists of typical gneisses and Verrucano-like shales (not genuine Verrucano rocks, as was formerly assumed) in steep-standing position, thus discordant to everything overlying, as well as of coarse quartz sandstones above, in the position of the overlying sediments. Their assignment to Permian Verrucano or to lower Triassic (Buntsandstein) cannot yet be decided.

  2. The Triassic divides into Röti dolomite and Quarten shale. The Röti dolomite (45-50 m thickness) forms the characteristic yellowish-reddish rock bands and heads above the village of Vättis on the Gelbberg-Vättnerkopf slope, at the Simel and at the Calanda (e.g., at the Gnapperkopf, an old ore deposit). It is a strongly marmorized, fine crystalline-granular, light gray or delicately pink-rose (Kreuzbach gorge, path to Ladils) magnesian limestone. At its lower boundary surface one often observes green sericite shales, at the upper coarse conglomerates. The Quarten shale (up to 10 m thickness) is a red, marly, rough shale with peculiar dolomite concretions.

  3. The alpine Jurassic with its threefold division:

    a. Lias (ca. 2 m), formerly stated as missing, first proven by Tolwinsky in 1908 in the Kreuzbach gorge: greenish, compact shales and echinoderm breccia.

    b. Dogger, namely black, lustrous, soft Opalinus clays with finest crenulations (25 m), ferruginous sandstone (12 m), massive light echinoderm breccia (5 m) and iron oolite (2 m).

    c. Malm, in rich articulation as Schilt limestone, Quintner limestone (500 m), coralline limestone (140 m), cement stone layers (20 m), forms in its total thickness of 650-700 m a quite outstanding portion of the total structure of the autochthonous vault of Vättis. It forms the grandiose steep walls on both sides of the Calfeisental up to near St. Martin (Simel, under the Orgeln, Panära horns, in the framework of the Gigerwaldspitz, Drachenberg, Vättnerkopf) and on both sides of the Tamina valley below Vättis (Gelbberg, Vättnerberg, Findels, St. Peter gorge (coral limestone quarry)); the lower and middle sections of the Calanda are also built up of massive Malm limestone walls.

  4. The Cretaceous, which in our area can only be distinguished by comparison with other alpine Cretaceous stages, is likewise represented in all its stages: Öhrli limestone = Berriasian (40-50 m), Valanginian limestone with echinoderm breccia (15-20 m), Kiesel limestone = Hauterivian (20-23 m), Drusberg layers = Barremian (16 m), Schrattenkalk = Upper Barremian (18-20 m), Gault + Turrilites layers (2-10 m), Seewen layers = Cenomanian-Turonian = Seewen limestone and Seewen shale (30-40 m).

  5. The Tertiary, with the Bürgen layers (Assilina greensand), mighty glauconite sandstone layers with many nummulites and especially Globigerina shales, with the flysch group (Globigerina and roof shales) and the Wildflysch, forms in the autochthonous a well-developed member that develops ever more mightily toward the rear Calfeisental, Weisstannental and up to the Linth, especially in the fossil-poor Wildflysch. This occurs in mighty quartzite bands, clay shales, mica sandstones, breccias, polygenic conglomerates in stratigraphically confused positions, the result of great dynamic processes and tectonic disturbances. In the Wildflysch we also encounter the peculiar exotic blocks embedded in it (quartz porphyries, acid granites, mica schists, Eocene oil quartzites etc.), whose origin (whether southern?) is not yet clarified.

Viewed from the village of Vättis, the pre-Triassic crystalline rocks on the slope of Gelb- and Vättnerberg near the valley rise scarcely 100 m above the valley floor, while the Triassic and especially the Jurassic extend right up to the lower edge of the magnificent terraces of Gelbberg, Ladils and Vättnerberg and, at least at Gelbberg, reach a maximum height of 2000 m. Just somewhat below the shepherd’s hut Gelbberg (2070 m) the lowest Cretaceous stage, the Öhrli limestone, already begins, while the Valanginian (Valanginian limestone) with magnificent rounded karren formations forms the small plateau on which the Gelbberg hut stands. These karren, lacking any roughness and sharp edges, make a very ancient impression, and their formation definitely does not belong to the most recent times.

For the beginner in geological matters, the entire surface of the Gelbberg alp terrace up to the slope of the Drachenberg would contain various puzzles, since the dip of the autochthonous layers of the uppermost Jurassic (Malm and cement stone layers) together with the entire Cretaceous complex amounts to 18-20°, so that on the terrace ridge successively the Kiesel limestone, the Drusberg layers, the light Schrattenkalk and the dark Gault protrude tolerably from the turf and, given the small thickness of the layers, rapidly follow one another like collar-like formations. Much more understandable to him, however, becomes the stratification when he studies the clearly exposed Cretaceous profiles somewhat south of the Gelbberg hut at the escarpment toward the Calfeisental or in the eastward-lying gorge of the Kreuzbach gorge at the foot of the Vättnerkopf, where the mighty, retreating erosion of the Kreuzbach has exposed the Malm and Cretaceous layers in vertical profile so wonderfully that one can determine their sequence and thickness from a distance exactly. Taking into account the dip angle of the layers, we quickly become accustomed to their constant ascent from the Kreuzbach gorge up the southern and southeastern slope of the Drachenberg.

Thus we see the autochthonous Seewen limestone exposed on the eastern slope of the Drachenberg at the first light rocky head (above the left-side hut roof in Fig. 7) in typical stratification (at 2105 m). There it reaches a thickness of over 60 m and extends diagonally upward to the left up to about 2170 m. In the following higher-lying two kar-like rock niches (above the right hut roof in Fig. 7) we can follow the entire complex of Tertiary formations (the Bürgen layers, with Assilina greensand at the bottom, then the actual flysch group with the Globigerina shales, the roof shales and Taveyannaz sandstones). In contrast, both the Drachenberg and the Vättnerkopf lack the Wildflysch so mightily developed in the area of the rear Calfeisental and in the Graue Hörner (from the Tersol alp nearly to Piz Sol), with the quartzite bands (in which oil quartzites are often included), as well as the exotic blocks: a fact that requires special discussion in the prehistoric chapter of our treatise. As at Monte Luna and at the Vättnerkopf, we find in the uppermost layers toward the parautochthonous overthrust mass of the Drachenberg (uppermost Jurassic and Cretaceous) still a second nummulite horizon (with Assilina mammillata), which Tolwinsky already mentioned. The entire Eocene layer group is otherwise almost completely hidden under the green pasture mantle. Where it is exposed, as on the mentioned eastern side, the nummulite horizons characterize themselves, as also in the debris material on the Drachenberg slope, through entire banks and blocks completely studded with the characteristic fossils (Assilinas).

Here in the Tertiary mantle of the Drachenberg, the mighty tectonic disturbances come to light in an often confused stratification that for the most part makes more precise stratigraphy almost impossible. At about 2300 m the flysch reaches its uppermost end on the eastern side (further south at 2390 m). Almost equally high it extends in its completely exposed and nearly vegetation-free mighty mantle on the southern side of the Vättnerkopf toward the Kreuzbach gorge. After rainy weather this flysch mantle gleams light grayish to silver-colored and indicates here even more conspicuously than at the Drachenberg the sharply visible termination of the youngest sedimentary rock and thus of the entire autochthonous vault normally built up from the valley of Vättis. Up to here, i.e., up to the height of 2300 m, the front Drachenberg must therefore normally have reached in its original culmination, before the peculiar summit ridges of the Drachenberg and Vättnerkopf (the Drachenberg overthrust) were placed here above. North of both, the flysch mantle reached admittedly still higher up, since the connecting ridge running between the rear Drachenberg and Vättnerkopf also still belongs to the flysch.

The Drachenberg overthrust.

Better than many words, the panoramic view from the Gelbberg terrace (Figs. 5 and 6) shows us the striking conditions of this Drachenberg overthrust. — Above the widely projecting gentler slopes of the Vättnerkopf and Drachenberg rise like mighty castle ruins the bizarrely shaped summit sections of the two mentioned mountains, which reveal to the geologist the foreign “klippe” character. For at the upper edge of the Tertiary, the autochthonous basement should lawfully have reached its uppermost boundary, since younger formations than the flysch (together with the Wildflysch) nowhere occur in the entire area of the Graue Hörner, the Ringel chain and the Calanda.

Already during the ascent over the flysch and nummulite mantle of the Gelbberg we encounter in the turf hundreds of fallen rock fragments of a light, whitish limestone that immediately reveals itself as coral limestone and cement stone limestone of the uppermost Jurassic or Malm. The nearest light rock wall (under the isolated rock block standing in Fig. 7 from the Drachen head) proves to be the bedrock of the fallen fragments. In a thickness of about 45 m the Malm extends here as an older rock cover over the Tertiary. We can follow its continuation at exactly the same height over at the Vättnerkopf, in the first steeply rising rock bank honeycombed with numerous caves at the uppermost edge of the flysch.

Above the Malm, which must thus already be regarded as the lowest member of the overthrust Drachenberg nappe, now follows from 2360 m on the entire series of individual Cretaceous members in normal sequence as well-characterized rock bands alternating with gentler slopes: the Valanginian (up to 2400 m), the Kiesel limestone (from 2400-2420 m), the Drusberg layers (up to 2428 m), then the Schrattenkalk up to close to the foot of the now vertically precipitously rising uppermost rock wall of the Drachenberg at 2440 m. Here at the upper edge of the almost horizontally running Schrattenkalk, which forms a partly still grassed slope, we already stand at the foot of the 8 m high sloping ascent to the entrance gate of the Drachenloch. The foot of the mighty, at individual places almost overhanging uppermost rock wall of the Drachenberg is formed by the scarcely 5 m thick dark, far-visible rock band of Gault like a kind of blackish collar on the mountain. Above this build up in bold sweep the Seewen limestone and as roof of the mountain the Seewen shales in a total thickness of about 190 m up to the culmination point of the front Drachenberg dome (2635 m).

Seen from a distance from the east (about from the Gelbberg), we perceive under the dark Gault band the serrated band of Schrattenkalk, sharply contrasting with it and looking like a white collar, on the front southern and rear northern Drachenberg.

The wonderfully stepped layer profile of the front Drachenberg (with the cave entrance) can be most beautifully and clearly surveyed when we climb the Vättnerkopf from the already mentioned “Täli” ridge and proceed to its foremost, somewhat lower-lying rocky head, which can be executed without danger for those free from dizziness. There we also see how the layers toward the rear Drachenberg have suffered increasingly under the overthrusting and folding. Most violently, however, the rear (northern) Drachenberg seems to have been affected by these tectonic processes above all. Thus there the dark Gault band is nearly rolled out at some places and often scarcely recognizable, especially at the northern end. It also appears as if the rear Drachenberg had literally slid off the flysch mantle. On the whole, the tectonic conditions here are somewhat confused and unclear. One may compare there under the rear Drachenberg towers, which consist of Seewen limestone, the peculiar, pancake-like broadening of the light Schrattenkalk.80

Also on the southern side of the Drachenberg wall and especially on the western side of the Drachenberg toward the Tersol, both rock bands of Gault and Schrattenkalk are sharply defined. Here on the western side, which one easily reaches by going around the mountain, one sees the entire section of the overthrust mass of the Drachenberg from the Seewen shale dome through the other Cretaceous members and the Malm resting in a single vertical rock wall on the flysch (Fig. 8), which falls in steep slope, traversed by many erosion furrows, to the gruesome gorge of the Tersol brook. This foreign mass sitting on the flysch can be observed particularly beautifully from the opposite Gigerwaldspitz. From here it also reveals itself most clearly as a layer packet thrust against the more northerly situated flysch, in that the otherwise nearly horizontally situated Cretaceous-Jurassic layers are strongly bent backward at the northern boundary surface.

According to Tolwinsky (loc. cit., p. 41) we would have here “a vault bending, with the front of the overthrust fold, and also Vättnerkopf (Aelplikopf), Drachenberg and Gigerwaldspitz indicate the course of the vault front of this fold.”

If we turn our gaze from the Drachenlochhöhle toward the opposite Vättnerkopf, we see in it the faithful geological image of the Drachenberg. Like the towers and gates and other prominent members of a mighty pagoda, the entire superstructure of the Vättnerkopf rests on the widely projecting side mantle of gleaming flysch. In vertically rising wall the Malm (cement stone layers) perforated with wonderful rock gates rises from the flatter slope. The upper stories are formed successively by steep wall sections and more flatly sloped terraces of the Cretaceous stages: Öhrli limestone, Valanginian limestone, Kiesel limestone, Drusberg layers, Schrattenkalk, Gault, Turrilites layers, Seewen limestone, up to the Seewen shale of the dome-like rounded summit. Like the Drachenberg, the Vättnerkopf is also pressed against the flysch masses building up even higher behind it, and one clearly perceives on the western side of this mountain the Cretaceous layers, especially the two bands of Schrattenkalk (light) and Gault (dark), bent around and back at the contact with the flysch masses, whereby it has even come to fracturing of the Cretaceous bands.

These drag conditions can be observed very beautifully when we climb through the elongated depression strewn with weathering debris, the “Täli” between Vättnerkopf and Drachenberg to the connecting ridge (2550 m) of the two mentioned mountains. The upper slope of this “Täli” is a true treasure trove of tormented flysch shales of all kinds, which here through the enormous pressure received a completely sericitized, velvet-like lustrous surface. Here first we perceive how the Vättnerkopf and also the rear Drachenberg are actually only Jurassic and Cretaceous packet remnants glued to the flysch. With a south dip of their layers of 31-34°, one involuntarily gets the uncanny thought of the possibility of sliding off the steep flysch ridge. — Now we also understand the peculiar impression that the grotesque Vättnerkopf with its many “mountain faces” makes on us, whether we view it from the Gelbberg or from the height of the Drachenloch. The pressing on and up against the steep autochthonous flysch mantle may also have caused the strong crenulation of the Cretaceous layer bands, which expresses itself so visibly in the Valanginian and in the Schrattenkalk stage.

A peculiar repetition of all Cretaceous layers in a smaller packet at the western end of the Vättnerkopf, leaning against the Malm, the Öhrli and Valanginian limestone (below the large “Balm” on the western side), does not in my opinion hang together with the otherwise present vault bending here, i.e., the front of the overthrust fold, but seems much more to be in causal connection with the drag of the rear Drachenberg, which was also severely affected by the folding.

Already a brief glance at the position of the indigenous (autochthonous) basement of Vättnerkopf and Drachenberg and that of the overthrust (parautochthonous) masses in the summit sections of both mountains shows their different dip and strike. At the front Drachenberg admittedly the difference is not very considerable, although the autochthonous Jurassic and Cretaceous layers immediately distinguish themselves through a stronger inclination, while the overthrust Jurassic and Cretaceous layers on the so clearly exposed southern side of the Drachenberg approach more the horizontal position (up to 20-23° N dipping). The differences become greater toward the rear Drachenberg and completely at the Vättnerkopf, where strike and dip of the overthrust masses become completely contradictory compared to the autochthonous framework.

Thus we recognize in the Drachenkopf and Vättnerkopf two peculiar klippe-like older rock caps of upper Jurassic and the entire Cretaceous layer series placed on the younger, autochthonous Eocene. The pyramid of the Gigerwaldspitz, visible from the village of Vättis to the right in the Calfeisental and lying west opposite the Drachenberg, also joins them. Its uppermost third, in which the wonderfully curved Gault band is also far visible, belongs to the same parautochthonous nappe fold as that of the Drachenberg and Vättnerkopf.

Since the same phenomenon of thrust and overthrust mountain parts also occurs at the northern escarpment of the Ringel chain in the Orgeln and the Panärahörner, as well as on Tschepp, south of the Ringelspitze (Orgel fold, Panära fold, Tschepp fold), which are all located under the highest-situated Glarner Verrucano nappe and also at the Calanda two such thrust folds (lower and upper Kaminspitz fold) can be followed, it is evident that the newer geological workers of these areas have pursued the former connection of these present partial pieces. Tolwinsky and Blumenthal therefore assume that the Vättnerkopf-Drachenberg-Gigerwaldspitz folds are formed by the front of the upper Malm plate of the Calanda. J. Oberholzer, who has devoted himself to the revision of the geological conditions in this area, connects the three smaller nappe folds with the lower Kaminspitz fold at the Calanda, which continues southeast in the Orgeln, therefore belongs to the Orgel fold, while the Panära fold (Panärahörner) overlies this as a higher fold. South of the Ringelspitz lies above the Panära fold the likewise Malm and Cretaceous consisting Tschepp fold. Above this finally rests at 3000-3100 m the Verrucano of the great Helvetic thrust masses (Glarner Verrucano nappe). — (Heim, Geology of Switzerland, Vol. II, p. 385).

As parautochthonous overthrust folds, as we have become acquainted with the Drachenberg, Vättnerkopf and others in our area (cf. the definition in footnote to page 50), the thrust masses of the mentioned mountains do not originate from greater distance, “thus from the southern side of the Aar massif envelope, but from nearest proximity, from the northern side or the back of the same in the area itself (Ringel group) and have been scraped off from there by the higher thrust nappes and transported northward” (cf. Alb. Heim, Geology of Switzerland, Vol. II, p. 263 ff.). Tolwinsky (loc. cit., p. 55 ff.) summarizes his recognition of the genetic connection of these tectonic

phenomena in the sentence, “that the Drachenberg overthrust formed under the enormous load of the higher-situated Glarner and perhaps even higher nappes, in other words, these Jurassic-Cretaceous overthrusts arose after the Glarner nappe (with its present remnants in the Ringelspitz, Trinserhorn, Piz Segnes, Saurenstock, Piz Sol etc.) was already present above.” Tolwinsky gives the reasons for this view in the further text and I would like to refer to it here (p. 56).

Drachenberg and Vättnerkopf are today the isolated remaining partial pieces of one of the many parautochthonous overthrust folds in the Helvetic area. All around, their former connecting bridges with the Ringel group (Panärahörner, Orgeln), the Calanda, as well as the Gigerwaldspitz have been broken off by the deep incisions of the Calfeisen-Tamina and Tersol valleys, indeed also those between the two mountains themselves by the Kreuzbach gorge and the “Täli”.

As proud rock ruins with foreign “faces” they stand before us today and will, as once for the Paleolithic man, still captivate the eye of the researching human for thousands of years.

The Drachenlochhöhle is located, as we have heard, close to the boundary of the two uppermost Cretaceous members Gault and Seewen limestone of the Drachenberg overthrust. The cave itself lies completely in the lowest layers of the Seewen limestone. Even during our excavations in the three front cave parts we have nowhere encountered the surface of the Gault layers as native floor, nowhere have we also found any naturally deposited fragments of this rock in the debris masses of the floor filling of the cave.

After these general geological discussions, we can concern ourselves with the question of the formation of the Drachenloch cave.

B. Formation of the Drachenloch Cave.

It has been indicated at the beginning that it owes its extraordinary height in this region solely and exclusively to the peculiar superposition of older rocks on younger ones. For without the Drachenberg overthrust, the autochthonous mountain would reach only to 2300 m at this location. But even the uppermost member of the same, flysch and nummulite limestone, is not suitable here for cave formation. The autochthonous Cretaceous also comprises in its entire thickness only about 160 m (2000-2160 m); the Seewen limestone reaches to 2160 m, so that we could expect actual cave formation only up to this height. In reality, actual caves in the indigenous basement have not become known to date in the Calfeisen-Tamina area. On the other hand, we find a multitude of smaller and larger rock shelters and “Balmen,” such as the “Krummbalm” in the Tersol (on the western side of the Drachenberg, at about 1900 m), the “Mieseggbalm” in the Miesegg gorge at the Calanda (above Vättis at ca. 1250 m). — It is always the harder members of the limestone rock, the Cretaceous and the Jurassic (Malm), which favor the formation of such “Balmen.”

The Drachenloch therefore belongs completely to the horizon of the lower Seewen limestone. — Its position here can be described as nearly horizontal. Already a glance at the outer wall of the Drachenberg shows the actual character of the Seewen limestone as thin-layered, platy limestone rock of dense structure and light gray color in fracture, which during folding demonstrated great yielding to pressure and compression and therefore has a strongly bent, tormented and dragged appearance in places, which often represents a not easily unraveled chaos of small folds and crenulations. Most conspicuously this phenomenon confronts us in the foremost cave parts on walls and ceilings, where it is often difficult to distinguish what belongs together, so that it immediately gives the impression that significant mechanical processes must have taken place here, which made themselves felt in particularly pronounced manner in the cave and caused a complete crenulation of the thin rock plates into wildly bent shells.

Right upon viewing the cave portal from outside, our eye encounters above its weathered vault arch a fairly strong, if also completely joined, somewhat obliquely upward running crack in the rock in the Drachenkopf rock wall, which corresponds to a fracture cleft present here and traversing the entire first cave section. There are now a whole number of such cracks in the Drachenberg and in the entire cave system of the Drachenloch, which irregularly, often not lengthwise but obliquely to the longitudinal axis of the individual chambers, traverse the wall and ceiling rock.

Then it becomes clear to us that the entire Drachenloch does not represent the result of artificial interventions by human hand, however much the uninitiated, especially when viewing the magnificent pointed vault at the cave portal and in the first large cave chamber, might hardly grant nature such formations. That it can only be a matter of her work alone becomes clear to him first in the rearmost parts of the tube-like smaller cave chambers, where the working activity of creating nature can be easily followed.

The fracturing and crenulation of the Seewen limestone is naturally the consequence of the tectonic processes that took place here, i.e., mountain pressure and rock folding. How strongly the layers were affected during the formation of the thrust Drachenberg fold is shown somewhat north of the cave even in the course of the strongly bent and crenulated Schrattenkalk, which extends as a light, wave-like curved band along the eastern wall of the Drachenberg and there rapidly descends northward. The fracturing of the Seewen limestone is therefore also the first cause of the entire cave formation in general. The Drachenloch is therefore not a so-called primary cave, i.e., one formed with the formation of the rock, as we encounter such in crystalline and volcanic rocks (vesicular spaces, lava caves, crystal cellars etc.), but a later-formed, natural cave, which initially consisted only of splits and clefts, but was then expanded to an actual cave through the work of water. According to newer investigations on cave genesis, it is, in general according to its original layout, a fracturing or tectonic cave. The larger and smaller cracks and clefts produced by the mechanical processes served the atmospheric seepage water primarily as drainage channels through the rock.

The living force of water manifests itself in two ways, namely mechanically eroding (scouring) and chemically dissolving (corroding). Erosion works through the more or less violent impact of water on the rock; much stronger is the effect of rock particles carried by the water, which perform an abrasive activity on the firm contact points. The stronger the force of the water, the softer the substrate of the bed, the more incisive the scouring becomes on it and on the side walls. At certain places of the water bed, erosion channels and basins can form through the involvement and cooperation of solid substances in motion. Water digs out river beds and widens them solely through its mechanical force. Rock fragments are transported further and abraded at edges and corners and reduced in entire circumference, often to complete wearing away. But flowing water has in its specifically mechanical force much too small an effect to form actual large cavities; rather, destruction of existing caves and reduction of spaces takes place through the accumulation of solid components carried by flowing water. At times expansion and alteration of the cavities in the rock may well occur through scouring into so-called river water caves.

Knebel (Cave Science) rightly points out that until now the mechanical activity of water in cave formation has been attributed much too decisive a role, while the chemical dissolution of rock, the corrosion, which has the main share in cave formation, has been much too underestimated. For quite differently the corrosion force of water is able to come into activity for the underground removal of mountains, thus for actual cave formation and the expansion of cavity systems, by being able to permeate even apparently impermeable rocks and being capable of chemically dissolving and removing them. Among these rocks, limestone and dolomite are most easily attackable.

No wonder that therefore limestone mountains contain the greatest number of all caves, since they possess the greatest water permeability. This shows itself probably most conspicuously in the karst landscapes of Carniola, where the cave phenomenon is most widespread.

If we examine the Drachenloch in its evolution, it emerges with certainty that it does not belong to the so-called river water caves that arose perhaps through a horizontally flowing watercourse, through a cave river, although its entire direction keeps more to the straight line and the rear cave parts possess fairly tunnel form. The direction corresponds rather to that largest fracture cleft that generally runs transversely east-west through the head of the Drachenberg. Also the various basin- and dome-like deepened parts in the cave walls and ceiling are, however much one might declare them so at first glance, no products of strongly and rapidly flowing water. The entire Drachenloch cave system is the product of the downward trickling, chemically dissolving seepage water; it is a typical seepage water cave. This is already indicated by its entire position inside the Drachenberg, near its summit point. Even with the help of geological considerations it would be absolutely unthinkable where in this extraordinary, isolated position of the cave a river groundwater could have flowed from. Further proof that the Drachenloch owes its expansion to cave to the chemical erosion of carbonic acid-containing water, we find especially also in the absence of any horizontal erosion grooves, channels, basins, as we encounter such in river gorges, for example in the Tamina gorge or then again in the glacial erosion groove of the Hirschensprung near Oberriet in the Rhine valley. — The native rock floor of the Drachenloch, as far as it was exposed by our excavations in the larger part of cave I and in the second, contains no traces of rolled, water-scoured rock fragments (pebbles) that would still have to be present if any stronger transport of the weathering products of the cave rock had taken place. — Eloquent testimony to the character of a seepage water cave, which nowhere bears traces of collapse phenomena, is now given by the entire floor filling mass, which became the special point of attack of our excavation activity. It lies throughout on primary foundation, thus has also suffered no subsequent change of the original position from place. We want to use the opportunity right here to become more closely acquainted with the floor filling.

C. The cave floor filling.

By floor filling we understand the entire mass of stones, earth, sinter, clay, animal remains (bones, snail shells), plant remains (roots, fruits, woods), animal droppings (feces), as well as products and legacies of humans (hunting animal remains, stone and bone tools, ornamental objects, charcoal remains from former fireplaces, sacrificial sites etc.), which fill the space from the present floor surface down to the actual rock floor of the cave (native floor). This floor filling carries the history of its formation, its entire becoming within itself. If this filling is expressed in the form of layers with respectively different character (stony, earthy, clayey, sandy, humic), with changing colors and various animal remains and cultural contents of humans, then these layers are at the same time the “history pages” of the former events that played out here through nature, animal and human.

The material of the floor filling in the Drachenloch is thus of various composition and origin. In general, one can distinguish:

  1. Products of purely natural inorganic and organic processes in the cave, namely

    a. those of the weathering process: rock parts that were split off from the ceiling and wall rock by frost splitting81, gradually crumbled and fell to the ground. Since the Seewen limestone of the cave had already suffered severely during the folding and overthrusting of the rock masses, was loosened, splintered and torn in numerous places, its cohesive strength had been substantially weakened. The crumbling also proceeded all the more easily since the Seewen limestone rock is not of large-bank nature but more of a scaly-thin-platy nature and the plates of the ceiling lie partly in horizontal position. As a result of the gradually ever-increasing span of the cave ceiling, the equilibrium of tension also suffered temporarily. Thus larger ceiling collapses could occur; mostly, however, they are only smaller shards that gradually formed a considerable part of the floor filling in the form of rock fragments.

    The excavation of the first foremost cave (H 1) has shown that probably two-thirds of the entire floor debris consists of nothing but rock fragments, often entire broad plates. Here weathering could attack most vigorously as a result of easily penetrating frost splitting. The insight into the debris profiles has shown that at times strong collapses occurred, at other times only light crumbling took place. — This cave part would have been dangerous for permanent human habitation at all times as a result of this rock brittleness. We must therefore not wonder if cave I, despite its best lighting, provided only very little material in both animal finds and remains of human activity.

    The conditions are substantially different in the inner cave parts. As emerges from the meteorological data, winter cold can penetrate here only to a small degree; indeed, in the innermost parts the constant “mild” temperature of 3-4° C prevails. Here weathering is much slower, the debris pieces are of much smaller dimensions, and large ceiling pieces rarely came to collapse (cave III). At one place in cave II a number of larger rock shells were found in the floor debris, whose position suggested that they were detached by rock movements (dislocations) of the cave layers as a result of mountain pressure or perhaps by earthquakes. — One may assume with certainty that rock in caves, which has already experienced significant relief since the time of cave formation, has yet not passed into stable equilibrium, so that even now relaxations can still occur during earthquakes. During my visit to the Drachenloch on July 3, 1903, I heard in the rearmost part of the cave (VI) in absolute quiet (I was making notes in my “cave notebook”) suddenly a thunder-like crack with longer reverberation that literally startled me. I immediately noted minute and second. According to the statement of unimpeachable witnesses who were in the vicinity of the Drachenberg, no crack whatsoever was heard outside the cave there. I suspect that it was the phenomenon of a smaller earthquake, since the Tamina Calfeisental, but especially Vättis, is a small shaking area where during seven summers I could establish stronger earth shocks several times.

    The position of the many small, shard-like ceiling collapse pieces in the inner cave parts is almost throughout horizontal because of their only slightly high fall, in contrast to that mostly sloping position of larger ceiling plates in the more than 5 m high front cave. As we will learn later, phenomena came to light in cave II during our excavations that provided sure proof that prehistoric humans had their hand in the piling up of ceiling collapse pieces, and that rearrangements and relocations of rock plates undertaken by them took place here. — Compared to the mighty predominance of crumbling in the front cave, the weathering material in the inner cave parts amounts to scarcely more than one-fifth of the entire floor filling.

    b. Precipitates from the seepage water of the cave. Mixed with the rock fragments fallen to the ground through weathering, often also alternating with them in layers, we find carbonate of lime as a precipitate from the cave seepage water in virtually every cave filling.

    In the Drachenloch this precipitate can unconditionally be regarded as of primary origin, i.e., originating from the cave rock itself and its immediate surroundings in the Drachenberg itself. In relation to the carbonate of lime dissolved by the carbonic acid-containing water and partly carried away with it from the cave, the residues remaining in the cave form only a relatively smaller fraction, especially in the front large cave where water drainage was favorable. It stands differently in the inner cave parts already from cave II on. There namely the native rock floor lay nearly 1 2/3 m deeper than in front, so that there immediately during cave corrosion a kind of retention basin formed, in which significant masses of clay were deposited.

    The precipitates from the carbonate of lime-containing water occur in the Drachenloch in various formations.

    i. Earthy sinter, in soft, mouldy, often almost sandy dry consistency. Only in the deeper layers is it moist, where a damming of seepage water above the clay layer is present and the drainage of water proceeds only slowly, or at the surface of the floor filling as a result of temporarily strong moisture content of the cave air. The color of this earthy sinter is very different, sometimes dark-blackish, insofar as lower plant organisms (lichens, mosses) or animal feces have mixed with the sinter, sometimes reddish to brown, where a mixing with decayed animal bones has taken place or where actual red earth (terra rossa) formation has occurred. In fresh condition we find the sinter also grayish to snow-white or yellowish-white, especially in the uppermost layer parts and particularly along the contact surface of the floor debris filling with the cave walls, often as a result of the looseness prevailing there down to great depth.

    ii. Actual solid lime sinter formations in surface-like spread on the cave walls, in rock clefts, cave chimneys and on the ceiling, mostly of grayish or whitish coloration. As a result of the evaporation prevailing in the cave, fine lime films deposit from the hanging water drops onto the ceiling rock, which even grow into bulge-like formations. Significant stalactite formations, as such are predominant in caves with strong evaporation, have not occurred in the Drachenloch. Only the rearmost cave part (VI) shows stronger hump-like deposits, as well as the formation of calcite crystals into actual mineral groups.

    iii. Clay formations. Various layers and layer parts of the floor filling in the individual cave parts take on the character of actual clay formation, especially in the deeper layers, while in the upper layers these dissolution residues occur only in very small measure and in weak spread. — In quite conspicuous manner we encounter in the II. cave section and also extending through the III. cave, lying directly on the cave rock floor, an extraordinarily strong up to 1.8 m thick, almost pure white clay layer, in which virtually no weathering products in the form of Seewen limestone fragments of the cave rock occur, but in which also any traces of animal remains are completely absent. This white clay, which is only occasionally somewhat tinted reddish by iron oxide hydrate, shows great homogeneity and fineness of structure and feels almost soapy, kaolin-like. In dried condition it colors intensely white, and the surface finally weathers dusty.

    At first glance one might conclude from the enormous thickness of this white clay layer that it has secondary position, i.e., regard it as alluvial. Closer examination shows with certainty, however, that this is a primary deposit — in loco — indeed, it reveals itself as a residual mass deposited in complete rest in a deepened rock floor basin, since the native rock floor of the first large cave lies nearly 2 meters higher than that of the second and third cave part. Already after the first centimeter-thick clay deposits on the native rock floor, the water could no longer permeate them; it dammed up into a basin from which the water dried out solely through cave evaporation. This white clay is admittedly still in moist condition at least above, while in deeper layers it is completely dry and flaky. A more precise chemical investigation of this peculiar white clay layer will still take place. In all my cave researches I have never encountered such a layer formation.

    c. Humus formations. The humic deposits arise as is known from the decay and decomposition of dead remains of plant and animal bodies. We find them accordingly also in caves, but only as far as organisms of plant and animal nature are able to reach. In the Drachenloch only the three foremost cave sections come into consideration for humus formations, most of all the foremost and specifically at the entrance and along the cave walls, where phanerogams and cryptogams colonize the floor. Much more sparse and only originating from the decay of animals that died here is the humus in caves II and III, whereby the prehistoric animal world, which is present here in massive bone remains, can hardly have played a larger role in humus formation, because it was brought in by humans (see the section on prehistoric animal finds) and skin, hair and flesh of the hunting animals of prehistoric humans were used by them themselves, therefore provided no or only little decay substances.

    From the found animal bone remains of bats, voles (snow mouse = Arvicola nivalis), as well as of birds (alpine accentor, alpine choughs) it can be concluded that these animals found their death here in the cave and therefore contributed to humus formation. Likewise the soft parts of snails (Helix arbustorum var. alpicola), which are found in significant quantities in the three front cave parts, may have participated in this. Without doubt, part of these snails were also carried into the cave by birds (alpine choughs).

    A not small portion of the floor filling is provided by the excretory matter (feces) of owls, alpine choughs, mice. Along the cave rock walls, regular accumulations in smaller ramparts are found in places; they also distribute themselves over the remaining floor surface.

  2. Products of filling by animals and humans. Very many caves form the welcome shelter for various animal species. The number of these naturally also varies according to absolute height and the type of animal district. In the higher alpine locations we have to record a visible decrease in the number of species and individuals. The larger mammals step back completely in the present time; only bats, voles and shrews, marmots and snow hares are still able to describe their life circles up here. Remains of animals that died in the Drachenlochhöhle are found accordingly in considerable number. Much larger, however, is the quantity of larger animals brought in by the Stone Age human who lived here as hunting prey.

Thus certain parts of caves II and III are actual magazines and certain layers pronounced storage places of animal bones. Their quantity has contributed something essential to the cave filling; indeed, we know layers that are composed in their entire thickness of almost nothing but bone remains, especially of bear species. In these layers are found the unmistakable proofs of the presence of the Paleolithic hunter, partly in smashed, splintered bones, in ash and charcoal heaps with built-up fireplaces, in bone and stone tools. We therefore call such floor fillings cultural layers. They are what draw the prehistorian’s greatest attention and whose thorough investigation occupies him most. — The description of the layers in the Drachenloch is the subject of the following section.

Already in the foregoing we have indicated that among the products of purely inorganic nature in the Drachenloch no materials washed in from farther away are found, but that they are all of purely local nature, i.e., they originate from the cave itself and from the Drachenberg. It should therefore already be noted at this point that we encounter no traces of glacial relicts (erratic rocks, fluvioglacial gravels, moraine formations, glacial clay etc.) in the Drachenloch itself. We will learn elsewhere that this could never have been possible, since the ice age glaciations in the Calfeisen-Tamina valley stood much lower, and they nowhere essentially exceeded the heights of over 1900 m above sea level there. Already the Gelbberg terrace remained completely unaffected by larger glacial formations. The Drachenberg was at all times of high glaciation together with the cave a cliff projecting high above the glacier in the ice, a nunatak, as was also the case with the Wildkirchli and the Ebenalp.

Repeatedly the attempt has been made to make calculations from the thickness of cave debris fillings about what time would have been necessary for their deposition, in order to gain thereby reference points about the age of prehistoric sites in thousands and hundreds of years. — I have already demonstrated in my generally understandable monograph on the Wildkirchli the absolute worthlessness of such calculations, since we do not obtain even approximate values through them, and it is a vain effort to carry out calculations with extremely variable factors that change very strongly even in one and the same cave. — Certainty leaves us first of all when we establish certain approaches about time durations in so-called cultural layers, whose greater or lesser thickness is conditioned by the presence or absence of humans and animals. For this reason we renounce here any attempt at age determination of the cave filling in the Drachenloch.

VIII. The Find Layers and the Excavations. (Excavation Method and Excavation Profiles.)

The well-known “treasure hunting” was content to churn up the ground aimlessly and indiscriminately in search of finds of all kinds. In doing so, no consideration was given to the stratification of the finds and to all other circumstances of discovery, which play one of the most important roles in today’s prehistoric research for the precise determination of objects and prehistoric settlements. Countless finds reached private and museum collections as “antiquities” or “curiosities” without more precise location data (according to the topographical map, for example). Their value is therefore only slight today.

Entirely different requirements are placed by modern prehistoric science on the processing of prehistoric sites. It has recognized that the ground in which the ancient finds are preserved does not form a random jumble, but is composed of layers. They are something that has become. Layer upon layer has been deposited over the course of long periods of time, partly in a natural way (weathering, deposition of carbonate of lime from cave drip water, etc.), partly by animals (bones) and humans (bones of hunted animals, tools made of stone, bone, metals, jewelry, charcoal hearths, etc.). The oldest layers lie, if no later disturbances (excavations) have taken place, at the bottom, the younger and youngest ones above. Accordingly, the finds contained in the layers also have different, older or younger ages.

Thus the layers and layer parts in their superposition become so-called “prehistoric pages” for the researcher, from which he must read the history in the prehistory of the animal and human world, indeed even the climatic conditions of past geological periods. The find layers, but also the find-free deposits are the witnesses for the process of becoming and development in inorganic and organic nature. The tools of man and his other remains at prehistoric sites, i.e., the prehistoric content of the individual layers, likewise prove a succession of human cultural stages.

Often the finds from the various superimposed soil layers belong to several ages and stages of human prehistory (Old and New Stone Age, Metal Ages up to and including the historical period). On the other hand, find sites can contain only the remains of human presence from one and the same epoch. From the superposition of temporally and developmentally different cultural layers, the prehistoric chronologies and systems have also been established, on whose further and finer development research is continuously engaged.

If, according to what has been said, the stratification conditions in the soil filling of a prehistoric settlement are of fundamental importance for excavations, then a main task of exact research consists in determining the structure, stratification, nature, course, thickness and delimitation of the individual layers with the greatest accuracy. This work, which usually must first be learned through manifold practice and through several years of experience, yields the best results where a whole series of narrow and wider cultural stages are present at one find site.

Of great importance is obtaining full certainty about whether the find layers are really in undisturbed stratification, or whether subsequent disturbances (through excavations, churning up) have taken place in the soil debris, perhaps even only in historical times. A correct interpretation of the find conditions is only possible in undisturbed, intact layers. Disturbed profiles have no scientific value, and their content may at most only be compared with that from intact layers.

When establishing and determining the layers, their horizontal course, their thickness and their possible wedging out and disappearance must be carefully followed and graphically entered into the profile notebook that is indispensably necessary for every excavation. The following points must always be kept in mind: With more massive and extensive find layers, find-free ones of often only a few centimeters of vertical extent and lesser horizontal spread can alternate. However, the find-free layers are sometimes of essential significance. They can namely be the separating layers between two different cultural stages, an older lower and a younger upper one. Or they indicate the temporary absence of man during one and the same prehistoric period. As we have already mentioned, the individual soil layers differ, apart from the occurrence or absence of finds, usually very clearly through the color of the earthy, sintery, loamy, stony components or the uniform coloring of the individual layers, as well as through their hardness, looseness, dryness and moisture. -– According to these and many other viewpoints, the excavation methods of prehistoric researchers must be oriented.82 They thus differ essentially from the ordinary excavation work in the creation of ditches, canals, shafts, tunnels and cellars.

After these few introductory discussions, we now turn to the excavations in the Drachenloch! For the same we have made use of the precautions and methods customary today, as they have also been applied in the Wildkirchli. Before the beginning of any systematic excavations, a survey and precise division of the cave space to be tackled, or its ground surface, must take place first. In caves that consist of several sections, one is content with the initial division of the partial area just being worked on. After establishing the main longitudinal axis, which is usually assumed in the middle of the space and on which stretches of 1 m length each are marked off, the space is now divided left and right up to the cave walls into numbered square meters. Tightly drawn cords, whose endpoints on both sides are marked with red paint on the rock walls, serve best as transverse axes. This surface division, which is also graphically entered into the profile notebook, is of special value since it is used to designate the horizontal distribution of the finds.

Now one begins with the removal of the surface debris, the earth and the fallen stones. This can still be done with pickaxe and shovel, because the uppermost layer usually contains no prehistoric finds. Nevertheless, one will already here direct attention to bone finds, etc., which belong to the most recent time and which give us various information when we compare them with the animal world of the present time. In the now following work in the deeper layers, these coarser tools may only serve for the removal of larger rock blocks, which often must also be broken up with the heavy iron hammer. Explosives (powder, cheddite, dynamite) are to be used only with the greatest caution. In the actual find layers, finer tools (drawing and scraping irons, scrapers made of iron, as well as wooden instruments) come into use, so that the finds are spared as much as possible.

The first examination of the layers always takes place on the spot. In the darker cave parts this is possible with sufficient artificial lighting. As in the Wildkirchli, we also used acetylene light in the Drachenloch, i.e., the Kaiser storm torch, here with 150 candle light intensity. It renders excellent service, since it provides so much light that one can gain, besides the recognition of the finds, a clear insight into the nature of the layers and into the find facts. The finer examination of all layer material, however, takes place in the foremost part of the fully lit large cave, near the entrance gate, on a 2 m long and about 1 m wide sorting table. The debris material is conveyed to daylight by means of wheelbarrows. All finds get into larger and smaller wooden boxes, cloth and paper sacks, and are marked by means of labels (information: date, cave part, profile number, layer, depth position, etc.). Important and easily breakable objects (skulls, etc.) are already well packed up in the cave. The transport to the Gelbberg hut and to Vättis happens by means of “Räf”. In order not to increase the transport costs too much, the incomplete and heavily splintered bone material is left up in the cave. Only a few specimens of the same from the individual layers also reach the valley. Because there every find object is inscribed with India ink after cleaning has taken place, its exact origin from the cave debris can be determined for all times and its former position in the excavation profiles can be reconstructed.

Excavation Methods.

The same must always be adapted to the local conditions and circumstances. There are no generally binding regulations. However, the practical cave researcher must direct the method in each case so that he comes as close as possible to solving the questions posed. -– One generally distinguishes two types of excavations. One turns toward the depth (vertical method), i.e., one digs downward through the individual layers down to the native ground or some other conspicuous depth horizon. Thus we obtain an insight into the vertical configuration, the course, the thickness of the individual layers, into the separation from one another and the ordered superposition of the same. The other excavation method goes in horizontal direction (horizontal method), i.e., layer by layer is removed on predetermined horizontal surfaces. We thereby learn the nature of each individual layer in greater horizontal extension, the stratification of the finds in one and the same layer and their local distribution.

Naturally one does well to apply the two main methods alternately in the excavations. One also creates stepped excavation cross-sections or profiles of 1 m length each in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the cave at the bottom. In this way, with sufficient width extension of the cave, several persons can work in the layers assigned to them. One must always pay strict attention that find material from different layers is not mixed with one another, since errors of this kind can no longer be corrected.

From meter to meter of the longitudinal axis, often even at smaller intervals and according to the find conditions, one now also creates the graphic cross profiles and longitudinal profiles, which are compiled in the profile book. The textual information laid down in the diary, as well as the designations of the individual find objects, refer to these cross and longitudinal sections. After completion of the excavations and also later, we are able to reproduce all find circumstances exactly. From the stringing together of the profiles in all worked cave parts, we finally gain an overview of the entire find conditions.

Find Area in the Drachenloch.

Since the first paleontological objects (bones of cave bears) were uncovered in the second cave part, the beginning of the systematically arranged excavations was given at this place. Simple consideration forbids cutting into arbitrary parts of the cave debris floor at random, before one possesses sufficient clues for a “fruitful” excavation. For the initial success is judged precisely according to finds. A longer absence of the same discourages workers and leaders of excavations. The leaders themselves also have to assume a certain responsibility for wise utilization of the financial means approved by authorities and scientific institutions for the excavations.

A bad surprise would have awaited us if we had begun the excavations, as is otherwise custom and regulation, in the foremost cave part of the Drachenloch; for the same proved to be very poor in finds contrary to all preliminary assumptions. Only so-called “scattered finds” came to light when in the third excavation year we created in this first cave (I) an approximately 20 m long and 1½—2 m wide longitudinal trench down to the native cave floor. This cave part also yielded no secure clues for the habitation of the Drachenloch by prehistoric man due to lack of any stratigraphic horizons in the soil filling. Any sharp separation of individual layers was missing, which for the greatest part consisted of weathering debris of the standing cave rock (especially originating from the ceiling of the cave) and of earthy sinter.

The reasons for the absence of larger finds in the seemingly so favorable first large cave part hit by full daylight, or respectively the non-consideration of the same as dwelling place of primitive man, we have already at least indicated in the sections on the meteorological conditions and the general situation. They are, briefly repeated: strong weathering phenomena in this part, temporary significant ceiling collapses with endangering of man, greater water conductivity as a result of stronger fissuring of the cave rock, more noticeable temperature fluctuations and air draft conditions.

The excavations in this first cave have moreover proven that the cave space under the soil debris covering, as a result of its closing together downward, whereby a narrow longitudinal channel arose toward the native ground, would not have been a suitable dwelling place for prehistoric man at all, since he would have found too little lateral freedom of movement in this natural channel. -– We understand that already the Paleolithic man knew certain precautionary measures and conveniences in the sense of protection against ceiling collapse, wetness, cold and stronger air draft and therefore in the majority of cases -– also in the Wildkirchli -– always selected the most favorable spots in a cave as resting and working place. Thus we come to the conclusion that the first cave served man mainly as passageway to the inner cave chambers.

For a settlement of cave I, only the dome structure mentioned in the general situation in the rearmost right part of the same would come into consideration, since its lateral floor surface extension is greater than that of the front and middle parts of this cave. Nothing definite can be said about this today, because we have only made superficial excavations there, but in the same no finds have come to light until today.

The conditions are now essentially different right at the transition of the first cave through the former crawlway into cave II, in this itself and in the following cave III. Here we have more balanced temperatures, which, even if they are low (cf. the meteorological section), are not felt as unpleasant, which we also sensed during our work. There we also encounter greater relative dryness and air calm. Those were the naturally predetermined resting, working and other dwelling places for the primitive hunter, as the excavations undertaken there have surely proven. -– The lack of natural lighting was then compensated by the artificial light source of the cave or hearth fire. During our deeper excavations in the second cave it has moreover been shown that in earliest times, when the soil filling had stood significantly deeper, a good part of daylight was still able to penetrate into this cave space as well. Thus the then lighting conditions were more favorable than today.

Where now through first trial excavations the proof of finds was provided, there it is not difficult to begin systematic further research, because from there usually find follows find. Otherwise the search for “fruitful” (fertile) ground happens by means of considerations and “idea associations”, which only establish themselves through manifold practice in prehistoric research. I have described the same more precisely in my “Methodology”. The researcher must, to put it briefly, be able to feel his way into the dwelling and existence conditions of prehistoric man in order to guess the favorable find places, as it were. However, even the best-trained practitioner can be subject to surprises.

Let us now proceed to the brief description of the excavation profiles and the individual find layers in cave parts II and III, which represent the actual find area, since presumably the rear cave sections (IV—VI) will hardly allow more important finds to come to light due to the all too narrow spatial conditions.

The Excavation Profiles and the Find Layers.

The large number of excavation profiles created in caves II and III of the Drachenloch, partly longitudinal, partly cross and diagonal profiles, has yielded with certainty a consistent agreement in the structure of the soil filling layers, since the individual layers characterize themselves very sharply with regard to their nature, their components, their color and the finds contained in them. -– At this place we remind once more that during our excavations we have repeatedly encountered layer disturbances by the “treasure-hunting” human. However, they nowhere reach a greater extent and in no case extend to greater depths of the profiles. From these layer disturbances surely comes a larger part of the animal bones that lay scattered about on the ground surface earlier and still at the beginning of our excavations.

If in general the stratification in the individual excavation profiles was found to correspond to the horizontal plane, the stratification of the layers nevertheless deviates noticeably from it in places. They “rise and fall”, increase or decrease in thickness and can even disappear (“wedge out”), in order to reappear at other places. There are various causes that condition this change: unevenness of the ground on which further deposits took place, larger ceiling collapse blocks, natural or artificial accumulation of animal bones, charcoal hearths, compression of the ground by overlying rock debris or by the tread of man, churning up of the ground, etc.

As a common characteristic of all cross and longitudinal profiles results the consistent presence of 6 different layers in the cave filling ground over a stretch of the longitudinal axes of about 25 m. Their separation from one another can be sharply demonstrated almost everywhere, yet there are places with slow transitions from one layer to the other. The delimitation is most indistinct in each case at the two lateral cave walls. There the layers are mostly very loose, which during the excavations often makes itself known through a sudden collapse of the earth and sinter masses. During the “settling” of the layers, gaping distances have now and then arisen at the cave walls between these and the cave debris floor, through which material from upper layers, indeed even from the present surface (snail shells) has penetrated to the depths. From the paleontological part of this treatise we also learn that along the rock walls of the cave mass accumulations of the bone remains of hunted animals have taken place by prehistoric man. Through the same the layer and profile picture was somewhat unclear during our initial excavation work; it then emerged ever more clearly and sharply through the continued investigations in the full, uniformly built profiles.

The stratigraphic picture experiences a change with regard to the thickness of the entire layer complex through a decrease in the depth of the soil filling setting in from the second to the third cave and toward the middle of the latter and through the gradual rise of the layers toward the rear. Here, as in the second cave, one gets the impression that man of prehistoric times used the two spaces as shelter precisely as long as he could still move upright in them according to their height.

The deepest profile we could establish so far in the passage from the first to the second cave section, where a total thickness of all six layers of about 3½ meters and a depth of the actual find layers of approximately 2 meters resulted.

A striking phenomenon, which I have never yet encountered in cave research, is the relatively great looseness of the find layers and their pronounced relative dryness. In this respect the Drachenloch stands in complete contrast to the Wildkirchli. Here we encountered layers and layer parts, especially toward the native rock floor, that were so hard pressed that one could only work them together with the bear remains cemented into actual bone breccias with pickaxe and blasting iron. Also much more layers with high moisture content were found in the Wildkirchli. In the Drachenloch, on the other hand, we encountered moister layer parts only toward the lowest sedimentary white clay layer.

If we consider more closely the still so great looseness today and the pronounced relative dryness of the find layers in the Drachenloch, we come to the thought that at the time of the formation of the layers, i.e., after the deposition of the lowest white clay layer, a drier climate than today must have prevailed up here in any case. This assumption is especially supported by the fact of the strikingly good preservation of the animal bones, especially in the middle layers. In high moisture they could never have maintained this hardness. Admittedly, the water conductivity in cave chambers II and III is only quite minimal even today; but it is hardly to be assumed that the desiccation and friability of the layers only originates from younger and most recent times.

A consequence of the loose and dry nature of the middle and upper soil layers and their subsequent sinking (“settling”) was probably also that at various places, especially along the cave walls, a part of the bones from the second layer was literally pushed up to the surface, and they even protruded from the ground with their ends.

Without doubt we have already reached the actual or native cave rock floor through the white lower clay layer during our first excavations in the Drachenloch. We did not cut it deeper later than down to its surface, in order to fill our time with more useful work than always penetrating to the bottom of the lowest soil layer that proved to be find-free. It is not to be foreseen that under it any research of significance is still to be carried out, so that we can maintain the number of six superimposed cave floor layers.

It may be added here that the individual layers from the Drachenloch, especially as regards their sinter and earth material, are to be subjected to an even more precise examination regarding their chemical nature, as was done at the time with the layers from the Wildkirchli. (Chemical soil analyses.)

Let us now subject the individual soil layers of the Drachenloch in the chronological sequence of their deposition, i.e., in reverse order from how we have numbered them in our graphic cross profile from the passage of the second to the third cave (Fig. 15), to a brief description. It should still be noted that in all profiles of the Drachenloch excavations we may only designate layers II, III, IV and V as so-called cultural layers, since only in them can the presence and activity of prehistoric man be proven. Layer VI is find-free; layer I no longer belongs to prehistoric times.

VI. White to whitish-gray cave clay layer.

The same has already been treated more thoroughly in the description of the cave filling. It lies hard against the native rock floor, spreads out, as far as has been established so far, only in cave parts II and III and indeed consistently from cave wall to cave wall and nestles against them, filling every finest crack, very firmly. Because it contains no coarser debris components in itself, but consists only of finest, pure, whitish cave clay, it is not an ordinary deposit composed of weathering components. But it also does not consist of non-local material washed into the cave from farther away. It is therefore also not of fluvial origin, but arose from the deposits of the seepage water of the cave itself. This happened at a time when the greatest part of the cave was already fully formed, but before its habitation by primitive man, who soon afterward lived on its surface.

The depth (thickness) of this white clay layer has been measured at one place up to 1.8 m; it may under circumstances be up to 2 m thick. The lowest parts are consistently dry, in places flaky, but at other places hard pressed, often with inclusion of stone-hard, cubic or prismatic separations. Despite the content of iron oxide hydrate, this clay is not an actual “Terra rossa” of the karst.

V. Light brown to slightly reddish-brown layer.

Sharp as a knife and without any indication of a gradual transition, the white clay layer separates from the now overlying colored layer, which quickly reveals its nature as a cultural layer. For right on its lowest surface bones of the cave bear (Ursus spelaeus Blum.) immediately appear in considerable number, which are now spread everywhere through the whole layer, so that one can designate the same as the first paleontological horizon in the Drachenloch cave. But we also have the proofs for the former presence of man in this layer, since numerous bone tools of the same were found here in accumulative stratification and intentional mass accumulations of cave bear bones.

Since the layer in its lowest parts is in places moist, loamy and quite compact, it is understandable if the bone material here is for the greatest part heavily moistened and very easily breakable. Of various cave bear skulls lying in it, not a single one could be saved as a whole. Also the large limb bones are brittle and fall apart at the slightest touch into pieces that can hardly or only with difficulty be put back together. The conditions become somewhat more favorable the further we get into the upper parts of this layer. There it is looser, often falls apart into fine flakes and becomes sandy in places, originating from nothing but decomposed limestone pieces. A phenomenon surprising to the uninitiated is the enormous change that the rock debris pieces, which fell from the cave walls to the floor, have suffered in greater depths of the profiles and especially in this layer. They look like white beveled chalk stones, which, when they have become somewhat dry, rub off strongly, later weathering away dustily with complete desiccation. If one breaks through such debris pieces, one perceives in the innermost part hardly the small still limestone-like core, while it is enveloped by a thick, crusty, white mantle layer.

We know these same phenomena also from the deeper find layers of the Wildkirchli, where they at the time led to the completely incorrect assumption that it was a matter of interglacial tuff rocks, similar to those of Flurlingen in canton Schaffhausen. A simple investigation, however, brought the proof that these debris rocks had undergone a decomposition “under the earth” that was also designated as “subterranean weathering”. The deeper they lie, the thicker is the white decomposition rind. That one may assign them an interglacial age has been unambiguously proven in the Wildkirchli, in that there they can be securely separated in one and the same horizon from the weathering products of the cave rock that suddenly appear as sharp-edged debris pieces in the next upper layer. -– For the Wildkirchli these decomposition products have attained high significance. In our later publication we will prove that the same also form an important piece of evidence for the age determination of the Drachenloch. The thickness of layer V varies from 25—40 cm, it possesses a fairly sharply drawn horizon upward.

IV. Light reddish to red-brown earth layer.

In its already loose nature and in the color it stands out fairly sharply from the layer lying under it and resembles more the layer lying over it. On the other hand, it possesses in its lower parts still moist and loamy parts, but is essentially lighter in color. In agreement with this, the rich bone material contained in it also possesses a paler, more yellowish color, so that it can be recognized very quickly as belonging to this layer. At the entrance to the second cave and still reaching into this, we found in the depth of this layer actual granular ice still in the months of July and August. The same originated from the previous winter and had not yet been able to thaw.

A sharp distinction of this fourth layer from the layer lying under and over it consists partly in a peculiar accumulation of smaller rock slabs, which are stratified horizontally one above the other. In one of the excavation profiles we encountered a superposition of such small slabs up to 50 cm thickness. Nowhere could proof be found that this was a work of nature, rather it gained more and more the appearance as if here, precisely over a constantly moist ground spot of layer V, an intentional regular accumulation of slab layers had taken place in order to avoid the moisture of the subground. In cross profile II of cave III the underlays even consisted entirely of yellowish, pure calcite pieces, whose origin can only be from the rearmost parts of cave III, because at the place itself such calcites are not standing in the ceiling rock. Human activity could be concluded here with certainty. The complete solution of the riddle then brought the discovery of a bone deposit (especially cave bear skulls) in a stone structure placed on these calcite chunks. (See section X.)

The rock material of this fourth layer is likewise still provided with a friable decomposition rind; not a single sharp-edged piece is to be found here. The bone material is already significantly better preserved than in the preceding fifth layer, but especially that which was stored in hermetically sealed stone masonry (see prehistoric section).

According to its thickness (60—98 cm) this layer represents a main horizon in which significant deposits, especially in faunistic respect, have taken place. Here we encounter the first proofs for the former presence of man, immediately striking even to the uninitiated, who operated a regular magazining of the most beautiful hunting trophies here. The animal world is entirely dominated by the cave bear in its heyday.

III. Red-brown to dark reddish earthy layer.

The same stands out extraordinarily sharply and clearly in the whole layer profile, especially through its intensive coloring and the extraordinary looseness. In places we encounter parts soft as mold, easily crumbled with the bare hand, which are distinguished by great dryness. The sintery-earthy material far outweighs the inclusions of weathered rock. Still here the latter is provided with a considerable decomposition rind, therefore strongly rounded at the edges. We encounter this condition of the stony debris exactly up to the uppermost boundary of this characteristic deposit.

Despite the slight thickness (35—55 cm) it contains a quite significant quantity of remains of the diluvial fauna, with the main regent, the cave bear. Its skeletal parts are here present in the best state of preservation, but still always make the impression of regular subfossil finds. With the upper boundary of this layer the cave bear concludes its existence in the Drachenloch, i.e., viewed from above, we always first encounter it in this III layer during the excavations. Here too we find intentional accumulations of animal bones that testify to the presence of man.83

Fig. 15. Excavation profile from passage II—III.

II. Grayish and whitish-gray sinter earth.

This layer too is clearly characterized by the contrast it forms with the layer underlying it. Often we encounter in it over greater stretches 0.5—1.5 dm wide almost snow-white to whitish-yellowish calcite sinter deposits in crumbly form. The whole layer is consistently very soft, dry dusty toward the cave walls. In places it also appears pressed, but nowhere takes on loamy character. The rock material contained in it shows virtually no or only very slight edge decomposition; it looks relatively fresh and stands in strong contrast to the decomposed rind parts of the debris pieces lying in the deeper layers.

All bones lying in this second-uppermost layer are preserved flawlessly fresh and often covered with snow-white calcite sinter. The most important result is the complete absence of the cave bear both in its high-browed form of the male sex as well as in the typical female forms with the flatter forehead slope. In the paleontological section of our treatise we will learn that we are dealing with a special Ursus species in the bear finds of the II layer. -– The thickness of this layer is very variable. Its fine flour has often penetrated deep down toward the cave walls. It does not exceed 40 cm in its vertical extension, mostly it remains between 15—25 cm. It may still be regarded as a prehistoric deposit.

I. Blackish mold layer of the surface.

Where the ground was not trodden firm through walking on it by humans, this layer with the slightest thickness (20—25 cm) is of very loose, moldy nature. Besides the never absent sinter deposit, the same contains much feces of birds (alpine choughs), also of snow mice, furthermore remains of mosses and plant fibers that were brought in by these rodents. Masses of bleached snail shells, rodent bones and those of birds cover the ground surface and are also stuck in this mold layer.

The investigations during the summers of 1920 and 1921 have shown that between layers I and II a narrow, measuring only a few centimeters, more grayish, loamy layer still interposes itself, which contains virtually no finds of an older animal world, but certainly not such of Ursus spelaeus. -– A similar, likewise loamy and only slightly extended intermediate layer, which however is lost in places, we have also been able to establish between the IV and V layer. But it cannot be decided whether the same may be used as a temporal horizon, or whether it is only a matter here of a local deposit of secondary character. A comparative parallel with the layer series in the Wildkirchli will bring our scientific treatise on the Drachenloch. In Figure 15 (excavation profile) I have drawn in these two intermediate layers.

I could not suppress this information about the presence of two intermediate layers in the Drachenloch, even if they are still so weakly developed, because we have encountered the same phenomenon in the Wildkirchli. There the upper separating layer represents a sharp horizon that has led to a separation of the lower interglacial and the upper postglacial layers. The narrow separating clay layer itself represents the time of the last glaciation (Würm glacial). Further determinations will probably lead to being able to use the layer sequence for temporal-geological delimitations in the Drachenloch as well.

IX. The Paleontological Finds in the Drachenloch.

The massive occurrence of bone remains of the cave bear (Ursus spelaeus Blum.) in the prehistoric site of Wildkirchli had suddenly shifted the previously known altitudinal limit of this mighty giant predator, which characterized an entire prehistoric epoch, upward by nearly a thousand meters. In the Wildkirchli, it was a matter of unambiguous proof that a whole number of aged cave bears had laid themselves down for their final sleep without any interference from Paleolithic man, at times when cave man was not present. Alongside this, i.e. in other cave sections of the Wildkirchli, remains of cave bears were found that could not have come from animals that had died a natural death here, but must be interpreted as prey remains of the Paleolithic hunter through their enormous scattering and splintering, especially of the large tubular bones. The simultaneous presence of unambiguous tools (of stone and bone) of the Wildkirchli primitive man, who had worked and used them here, formed the definitive proof of the former presence of cave man in this naturally so excellently suited refuge for humans and animals.

According to our knowledge of the altitudinal distribution of the common brown bear still living today (Ursus arctos L.), of which it is known that it is able to substantially exceed the upper tree line (it even wanders over snow and ice!), it is entirely comprehensible that its mighty ancestor Ursus spelaeus once chose the same living areas. Its occurrence at the height of the Wildkirchli and the Ebenalp is therefore no special event. In fact, we have finds of the fossil Ursus arctos in the cave Alpeel in the Furgglenfirst - Hohe Häuser-Hohen Kastenkette in the Säntis mountains at a height of exactly 1800 m.

A real surprise, however, was prepared for me by the first cave bear finds that came to my attention, which Mr. Teacher Theophil Nigg in Vättis sent to me from the Drachenloch in July 1917 for evaluation. The first systematic excavations undertaken at this site in August of the same year contained all indications of an extraordinarily rich find site of the diluvial cave bear and an accompanying fauna that proved to be identical with that of the Wildkirchli. The excavations continued in the years 1918-1921 have confirmed the results obtained in 1917 and completed the picture of the Drachenloch fauna to such an extent that it should no longer undergo any essential changes through the final excavations still to come in the rearmost cave sections of the Drachenloch, especially since the excavations last carried out in cave III may have reached the peak of abundance in finds.

As was already emphasized in the introduction, according to our initial assumptions we could hardly assess the Drachenloch cave other than as a purely paleontological find site, i.e. thus only with remains of animals from the diluvial epoch (the glacial period) or from an interglacial period, namely the last one (Riss-Würm Interglacial). The thought of any habitation by man living simultaneously with the cave bear in the lowlands and hill country or in the Wildkirchli remained entirely foreign to us because of the extremely high location of the Drachenloch. Already toward the end of the first excavation campaign of 1917, however, the suspicion gained more and more ground that the bone remains of cave bears in the Drachenloch must have been the remnants of the hunting activities of the former cave man.

Four facts pressed themselves more and more into the foreground of our considerations during the excavations from day to day:

  1. An enormous scattering of the bone remains and a splintering of the same, whose cause could be attributed neither to creative nature in the cave nor to any animals possibly present in it (dragging away of bones). It was, in a word, the exact find picture of the conditions as we had encountered them at the time in the Wildkirchli in those cave sections where demonstrably the cave man of the Paleolithic chose his dwelling place (stone and bone tools in the Altar, Cellar and Brotherhood caves).

  2. The complete absence of coherent skeletal parts belonging to the same individuals or even complete skeletons of the cave bear. A confused jumble of bone finds is evident everywhere in the Drachenloch.

  3. The constant occurrence of bone remains belonging only to younger individuals, the remarkable absence of older and very old cave bears.

  4. A very peculiar mass accumulation of bone remains, especially skulls and large extremity bones along the cave walls, while the central passages showed almost only splinter material, only very rarely completely preserved bones (hand and foot members, etc.). All these were pictures as we knew them well enough in part from the Wildkirchli.

Suddenly our suspicions, accompanied by all caution, became certainty when, at the entrance to the second, left-side cave section (II) in completely undisturbed stratification and in the undoubted layer of the cave bear, an extensive charcoal hearth of characteristic shape and arrangement came to light. Its more detailed description will occupy us later.

Complete clarity was then brought by the work in the years 1918-1921. According to these, proof can be provided in an unambiguous way that we are dealing in the Drachenloch with a real settlement of the Paleolithic cave man. We provide the evidence partly in this section on the paleontological finds, but especially in the actual prehistoric chapter. As concerns the total mass of cave bear bone finds, we can today establish in advance the fact that these animal bone remains stem entirely and solely from the hunting prey of the Paleolithic cave bear hunter.

Under this important aspect, we must consider the entire animal world of the Drachenloch, especially insofar as it concerns larger species and the deeper stratigraphic horizons. We can name no single place in this cave today where we find secure evidence for the dwelling, refuge and death place of an older cave bear. Thus the Drachenloch stands partly in contrast to the Wildkirchli, which, alongside cave sections in which the bear appears as hunting prey of man, also possessed other find sites where the old cave bears laid themselves down for their final sleep. From these places stem the more or less completely preserved skeletons of the cave bear, the largest of which today adorns the Wildkirchli collection in the Regional Museum of the city of St. Gallen, as the first and to this day only evidence of this giant predator form from Swiss lands. The find site of this skeleton formed a veritable grave of cave bears that had died naturally (bear grave). Admittedly, as I have explained in another place, we may not assume simultaneous habitation of the cave by bear and man even in the Wildkirchli, since these two already stood on quite strained footing at that time and knew no friendship-symbiosis. Rather, it is a matter of a temporal succession of cave settlement by the two. Whenever one came, the other wisely yielded to him and left him dominion over the cave. -– In the Drachenloch this double occupation of the cave by bear and man is lacking. This makes the find picture from the Drachenloch much simpler and clearer.

A surprisingly uniform result has emerged in both caves, however, in that where man had his resting places, work and prey dismemberment sites, consistently only the bone remains of younger age stages of the cave bear were found. W. Soergel84 rightly emphasizes in the comparison of a number of “bear caves” the contrast that caves with exclusive habitation by the cave bear form with those where the bear was the hunting prey of the primitive hunter. He names as a special criterion of Old Paleolithic hunting the presence of a predominant percentage of younger individuals and considers this as certain proof of the presence of the primitive hunter. For comparison, Soergel draws upon, for example, the bear remains from Mosbach and Mauer, which belong exclusively to old (70-80%), indeed partly very old individuals. There no traces of human remains were found at all. Quite different in the famous old prehistoric settlement of Taubach near Weimar, where at least 60% of younger animals came to light, which could be proven to be hunting prey remains of simultaneously living man by the nature of the bone material and the simultaneous presence of human tools (from the Acheulean-Mousterian). Similar conditions are known from the cave Certo vadira (Moravia), in Krapina (Croatia) and especially in the Schipka cave as well as from the Primitive Mousterian from Sirgenstein (R. R. Schmidt, Tübingen). At the latter place, all bear remains are “culinary refuse of the Paleolithic man, whose pursuit the cave bear fell victim to in the semi-illuminated dead end of this cave.”

True, there are also caves in which the higher percentage of younger animals cannot be explained by human hunting, but must be attributed to the raids of cave hyenas, which lived there in large numbers and dragged away the young cave bears (according to Soergel loc. cit., p. 52 and Eberhard Fraas: Die Höhlen der schwäbischen Alb, 1901). So also in the Irpfel cave. But neither in the Wildkirchli nor in the Drachenloch do we have to reckon with such dragging away, because at both places no traces of the cave hyena could be proven.

Now the number of caves in which bones of cave bears occur, but where evidence of simultaneous presence of man is lacking, is much greater than those in which the cave bear appears as hunting animal of man. According to Soergel, the ratio should not be too high at 10:90. Particularly productive bear caves were the Charlottenhöhle near Hürben, Hohlenstein in the Lohnetal, Libellenloch at the Teck, then the Tischoferhöhle near Kufstein and the extensive cave system of Sloup in Moravia, from which so many finds with skeletons exist in European museums.

These, however, are consistently composed of a larger number of individual specimens. At all these places, no human tools were found in the cave bear layers, even if in the upper younger layers neolithic finds came to light here and there.

In pure bear caves (without prehistoric content), therefore, a clear picture usually emerges quite soon through the presence of entire skeletons and coherent skeletal parts. Understandably, scatterings can also be established that were caused by animals that later penetrated into the cave (bears, wolves, hyenas, etc.) that gnawed the bones. -– Max Schlosser (Die Bären- oder Tischoferhöhle im Kaisertal bei Kufstein85 says: “During excavation, one could at least in the middle part of the cave almost always be certain of finding a number of coherent bones as soon as one had encountered a skull or a pelvis. Now and then one also finds broken bones here, especially tubular bones of the extremities, skulls, etc., whose destruction can be traced back to impact by falling cave rock.”

The virtually exclusive occurrence of young age stages of the cave bear in the Drachenloch (we have found so far a single canine tooth and a quite suspicious fragment from the right lower jaw of an old Ursus spelaeus) is thus a certain indication of the presence of the primitive hunter. Here, as elsewhere (Wildkirchli), the younger cave bear was the preferred hunting object of man. This is very understandable. The hunt for old individuals of this giant-strong predator was simply connected with too great dangers for man, especially when one considers the miserable armament of the hunter of that time. Despite the fine senses that he had for observation and tracking of the bear, the hunt for it remained, like that for today’s bear (despite high perfection of firearms), a terribly dangerous pursuit. Much easier, however, was the capture of the young, not yet cunning bears, especially in skillfully laid pitfall traps, as they are still used today by primitive peoples.

The research in the Drachenloch has now yielded an interesting picture in various respects that coincides neither with that of pure bear caves nor completely with those where the bone material is found in a very heavily splintered condition. True, we have find sites with destruction of bones going down to the smallest detail, as in the central sections of caves II and III, but on the other hand we encounter at certain places large mass accumulations of bones, especially skulls and extremity bones in the best state of preservation, particularly along the cave walls and under the individual cave passages from I to II and from II to III.

With all desirable clarity and certainty, proof could be provided that we are dealing here with artificial accumulations of mostly completely preserved animal bones undertaken by man. Instead of removing the bones from the cave, the Paleolithic hunter intentionally stored them in it, as the positioning of the bones and their external framing sufficiently shows. It is interesting to note how mostly non-coherent skeletal parts were stacked on these bone heaps. We will learn more in the prehistoric section.

While the foremost cave section proved to be a relatively very find-poor area (for the reasons already cited), not a single square meter of floor was found in the two cave sections following it that did not contain individual to very many bone finds and such in accumulative positioning. All main layers, with the exception of the lowest white clay layer, are carriers of partly diluvial, partly recent fauna. -– The latter is confined entirely to the uppermost, blackish humus layer, while the ice age animal world occupies the entire thickness of layers II to V. Let us now briefly let the series of animal species found so far and securely determined pass before our eyes.

The Animal Species of the Drachenloch and its Surroundings.

In this more comprehensive preliminary work on the results of Drachenloch research, it cannot naturally be a matter of an osteological detailed description. That is the task of the purely scientifically designed main work, which can only be taken up for processing when the entire find material from the Drachenloch is available and the same is studied down to all details. The main part in both faunistic and prehistoric respects has been delivered precisely by the excavations of the summer just past (1921). This material still awaits thorough registration and precise description. -– We therefore limit ourselves to the presentation of the most essential for a general orientation.

I. The Current Animal World in the Drachenloch and its Surroundings.

Before we enter upon the list of animal species found in the Drachenloch, we mention for comparison quickly those larger animal species that still animate the surroundings of the Drachenloch and the cave itself today. Naturally it is a matter of a distinctly alpine fauna.

Of the larger mammals that once also settled the Tamina-Calfeisen valley, the brown bear (Ursus arctos)86, the wolf, the wild boar, the lynx, the wildcat, the ibex, and of the larger birds the bearded vulture87 have been extinct for more than a century thanks to persecution by man. The same also applies to the red deer, which however has recently through its reintroduction in the canton of Graubünden now and then, even in recent years, strayed into the valley of Kunkels and into the Calfeisen valley. In 1911, in the Weisstannen valley (Lavtina-Marchstein-Hühnerspitz) located west of the Calfeisen valley, the introduction of pure-blooded ibex from the Peter and Paul wildlife park near St. Gallen took place. This colony has since increased naturally to a number of about 40 head and is thriving excellently.88 One of the ibex went in 1915 to the Alp Calvina located on the northern side of the Vättnerkopf, but returned to the release area in the same autumn.

Among the large animals still living in the area today belong first and foremost the chamois protected by state game preserve in the Graue Hörner, whose increase from year to year is growing in a gratifying way, then the roe deer, which belongs more to the valley floor. Fox, badger, pine marten, beech marten, polecat, squirrel and brown hare are still well distributed. Ermine, stoat,89 dormouse represent the small mammal world.

Marmot and mountain hare keep exclusively to the alpine region, likewise the snow vole and the alpine shrew.

Of the alpine birds, the magnificent golden eagle still maintains its realm undisputedly, whose closer acquaintance we had the opportunity to make almost every day during our mountain journeys, since it is still a nesting bird near Vättis and keeps its sharp eye directed at the sheep herds of the Gelbberg. In the realm of alpine mountain air we encounter: alpine chough (the alpine crow is extinct), wallcreeper, alpine accentor, snow finch, ptarmigan, which are our constant visitors on the Drachenberg. Raven, hooded crow, goshawk, peregrine and merlin, sparrowhawk and northern goshawk as well as the common buzzard also rise to the height of the Drachenberg. In the nearby alpine forest dwell black grouse, hazel grouse, wood pigeon and deeper down the capercaillie.

As a four-footed cave dweller90 of our time, only the snow vole (Arvicola = Microtus nivalis Mart.)91 comes into consideration. At the beginning of our excavations, it was present in a whole number in the inner cave sections, behaved very trustingly at first, gnawed and dragged away newspaper, paper bags, etc., but then found it safer to disappear from the range of Homo sapiens, appeared now and then again, like this summer, but only for a short time. I wondered for a long time what this cute little creature, which we otherwise regarded as a good friend in our work, actually had to do in the cave. One day the mystery was cleared up, as it turned out that this rodent had a specific preference for our prehistoric bones. The clever creature sought by means of deep tunnels that it dug in the floor debris to find the mass accumulations of bones in the cave bear layers and gnawed them extensively. Thus we have a bear lower jaw whose right articular process is completely gnawed away by this little creature, and the zygomatic arch of a cave bear skull shows unmistakable traces of chiseling activity by rodent teeth. -– Yes, this snow vole has even become our compass in searching for mass bone deposits in the depths, which it always let us guess through the burrows visible in the profile, which we then simply had to dig after. -– The snow vole -– a faithful helper and guide of the prehistoric researchers!

As can hardly be expected otherwise, bats (Chiroptera) also stay in this cave. This is evident especially from the deposits of their “droppings” on hidden rock ledges. According to specimens that I saw fluttering, it is probably only one species, the alpine bat (Vesperugo maurus L.). I always clearly observed the golden-gleaming hairs of their body surface.

That alpine accentors or snow birds, as well as alpine choughs like to use the caves as nesting and dwelling places in bad weather or at night is a known fact. Yes, for the latter it was downright a great insult that we took possession of their dwelling place during the day. Often they appeared with loud clamor before the cave entrance to make us aware of our insubordination. Plucked feathers and feces of these animals taught us each time that they had made use again overnight of their ancestral right to inhabit the cave. -– Often we heard at night from the Gelbberg hut the spectacle of the alpine choughs in the cave, who quarreled over the resting places. -– What a magnificent sight it offered us, however, when during the midday rests outside on the sunny little grass patches in front of the cave the wonderfully feathered wallcreeper, appearing almost like a colorful fairy tale, unfolded its butterfly-like flight play on the yellowish-reddish Drachenberg rock wall and always busily let its long fine beak glide into all cracks for insects and larvae. -– With it in flight always competed three pairs of a butterfly species, the Small Tortoiseshell (Vanessa urticae). The complete list of the small animals living in the Drachen cave will be brought by our monograph. Of butterflies I name only because of the high distribution altitude the also present in the Wildkirchli dark-colored but brilliantly bronze-colored August Thorn (Triphosa dubitata L.). When catching this animal resting on the somewhat moist rock wall of cave III, its wings were covered with finest water pearls and glittered most wonderfully in the acetylene light. According to J. Müller-Rutz (in K. Vorbrodt and J. Müller-Rutz, Butterflies of Switzerland, II., 47) this moth like its closest relative Triphosa sabaudiata occurs up to heights of 1800 m. Both species are temporary cave dwellers, especially for overwintering. Here T. dubitata exceeds the previously known upper limit by nearly 700 m. The animal was caught on August 14, 1921.92

A great surprise was prepared for me this summer by the discovery of the rhizopod colonies first proven by me in alpine caves (Wildkirchli), which belong mainly to the genera Difflugia and Arcella. On the somewhat moist north rock wall of cave III are found, as in the cellar cave of the Wildkirchli, masses of those strange, hemispherical, gray to dark brown, 1-1.5 cm large, soft spots that look like warts on the rock and can be easily crushed with the finger. -– With sufficient moisture, these tiny microscopic creatures unite into the hemispherical giant colonies, into a social union of the greatest style in a small space. When the cave rock becomes dry, the hemispherical formations change. They become crescent-shaped, worm-like, meandering, branched, because the little creatures go out in search of moisture. They can endure for a longer time in a half-dried state, but quickly unite again when the rock wall becomes moist. In building up the hemispherical shape of their colonies, they use the carbonate of lime of the cave wall rock, which they probably are able to dissolve chemically.

Let us now turn to the animal species brought to light by our excavations in the Drachenloch, insofar as these have been determined so far.

II. The Cave Fauna of the Uppermost Blackish Humus Layer.

Since this layer does not belong to the series of actual paleontological find layers and therefore appears as a carrier of recent animal life, it may be treated here separately. -– As already mentioned, it has been disturbed several times in historical times by upheavals, so that remains of prehistoric times also lie on and in it. Besides the masses of feces of the alpine choughs, introduced moss and other plant remains, we find bones of bats, alpine choughs, accentors, snow voles scattered everywhere and especially along the cave walls in confused disorder. Particularly striking are the empty snail shells accumulated in masses at the cave wall edges of Helix (Arianta) arbustorum L. var. alpicola, a species related to our familiar yellow and brown-banded garden snail. However, I have not encountered a single living specimen of it in the cave to this day, so that it is certainly a matter of introduction by birds. In fact, we do not have to look far for the originator of the same. For the chatty alpine chough betrays itself. It is known of it93 that alongside insects, worms, berries of all kinds, indeed even small birds (whose brains it pecks), it has a special preference for smaller snail species, shelled and unshelled. With its beak it understands how to get the soft animals out of the shell, often swallowing the shell itself as well. A large part of these snail shells occurring in the Drachenloch are also perforated. -– Alongside this helix snail we find furthermore representatives of the pupa snails (Pupa), of Balea and Clausilia, whose species still remain to be determined. They are certainly inhabitants of the cave, since living individuals are also to be encountered. Living was also found a barely 3 cm long pale slug (Limax arborum?).

Strangely, virtually no worms (Lumbricidae) occur in the cave debris of the uppermost as well as the other layers; so far only a single piece has been encountered. -– On the surface of the first layer in the second cave lay several lower jaws of the domestic goat and the domestic sheep. These must have been introduced by humans (visitors to the Drachenloch), since a penetration of these animals through the former narrow passage from cave I to II can hardly be assumed.

As a very striking fact, the complete absence of bear and wolf and other animals still living in the area today is to be recorded, proof that the Drachenloch cave did not serve larger animals, such as especially the brown bear, for their final sleep in historical times.

III. The Cave Fauna of the Prehistoric Find Layers.

Since this will receive a thorough scientific description only after completion of the excavations in the Drachenloch, we limit ourselves here to the brief enumeration of the animal species securely determined so far, along with the most important find data, as well as some general considerations.

1. The Cave Bear (Ursus spelaeus Blum).

It retains the main dominion within all prehistoric horizons from layer III to and including layer V, for 99.5% of all bone finds, except in layer II, stem from it. It is the same picture as the Wildkirchli presents. But the Drachenloch surpasses the mentioned prehistoric site with regard to the richness of complete and very well preserved find objects. The reason for this lies on the one hand in the mass accumulation intentionally undertaken by cave man at well-protected cave locations and within specially erected walls and enclosures built from stone slabs (hunting prey cult!), on the other hand in the relative dryness and looseness of the floor fill layers, which nevertheless formed a hermetic seal of the bone material from the outside air.

As already mentioned, except for two single finds (dragging in!), consistently only skeletal parts of younger age stages of the cave bear were found; not a single skull or jaw parts and extremity bones of very old individuals have come to light so far; strongly worn-down molars or “sucked-off” canine teeth, as so many are known from the Wildkirchli, are also lacking. -– Everywhere on skulls, jaws and individual pieces of teeth of various kinds, the chewing surfaces of the molars are still provided with the familiar cusps.

What makes the entire yield of cave bear remains particularly valuable is the circumstance that we have in the Drachenloch virtually a complete series of the developmental stages and growth stages of the cave bear, from the newborn to the two-year-old “pestun”94 and up to the fully grown, about 7-8 year old “full bear” that was already capable of reproduction. Some finds point to unborn, embryonic animals that came into the cave with the captured mother. The youthful age emerges, besides in a series of over 100 jaw pieces with complete dentition, especially also from the extremity bones, whose epiphyses are not yet fused and during excavations always separate, as well as from the vertebrae of the spine, in which the individual, later fusing components always fall apart. The large find series of jaws, especially lower jaws, allows a precise insight into the entire development of the cave bear dentition. The skulls of the youngest age stages are characterized especially by their strong rounding and the mighty predominance of the actual skull part over the facial section; they are extraordinarily graceful forms. In comparing the skull forms of the somewhat older and partly adult cave bears, a great variational ability of this skeletal part confronts us, as it appears so pronounced in hardly any other animal. In my special osteological treatment of the Drachenloch animal finds, this phenomenon will occupy us numerically.

Besides the familiar differences in the nature and form of the skull, especially of the frontal part in the male and female sex (the male with highly vaulted, the female with flatter forehead), we observe a whole number of the most various “physiognomies”, especially also those with deeply sunken forehead (middle). This extremely rich variation of skull forms, but also of the other skeletal bones of the cave bear, has notoriously led some researchers to establish a whole number of Ursus spelaeus races and varieties, indeed even different species. Max Schlosser (Die Tischoferhöhle) has rightly pointed to the inadmissibility of this too extreme species division and shown within what large dimensions the variation limits of Ursus spelaeus move. According to Schlosser, the difference in a reduction of the maximum of sizes in one and the same dimension in one and the same species can amount to more than a quarter. -– It would therefore make no sense to further split our Drachenloch cave bears, since almost every skull possesses its own “expression”. This variational ability is, incidentally, also known to zoologists from Ursus arctos, the common brown bear, which has led many to “construct” many subspecies in this species as well.95

A statistical enumeration of the individual pieces of all bone types found from the cave bear in the Drachenloch may be dispensed with here, since this is the matter of the special publication. It should only be pointed out that the number of skulls exceeds 50 to date, of which about 10 are in perfect condition and provide excellent measurement material for the special investigations. We have reproduced one of the skulls in Figure 17. It virtually fell into our hands from a very loose mass grave of bears that cave man had created. It required no special preparation, but was simply briefly washed with cold water and then dried in the shade. Its main measurements are as follows:

Total length of skull (measured in straight line) = 45.3 cm
Greatest width of skull (measured in straight line) = 27.5 cm
Highest height of skull (including lower jaw) = 29.0 cm
Length of lower jaw = 32.8 cm

Since this skull is the largest of all found in the Drachenloch, when compared with the largest from the Wildkirchli (a very old individual with totally worn-down molars), whose total length = 53, the skull width (outer zygomatic arch distance) = 30 cm, a significant difference emerges. The skull from the Drachenloch belongs to a just mature cave bear; its molars still possess the complete cusps and uneven chewing surfaces. It has an extremely beautiful, graceful form and bears the unmistakable characteristic of the male. (High vaulted forehead, “front bombé”.) Compared to the Ursus spelaeus skulls from the Wildkirchli, a characteristic short-snouted character of those from the Drachenloch immediately catches the eye (local variation?, as this is also known from the ibex).

Besides the completely preserved Drachenloch cave bear skulls, there are a whole number of those that have partly fallen victim to decomposition in the debris fill of the cave, especially in the deeper layers (V). Still others have damaged skull bones, holes, lifted-off upper parts, etc., whose causation must be attributed not or only partly to nature, but rather to the hand of man.

Among the rarities of our finds we may count the nearly complete skeleton of a perhaps only several months old small cave bear that came to light in cave III in layer III and indeed in wonderful preservation of the individual bones. This is the only more or less connected skeletal find, since, as already mentioned, the remaining material only very rarely shows pieces from the same individuals. How this little bear got in there and came to lie there naturally remains an eternal riddle. The skeleton shows no signs of injury; everything lay in proper order together. Whether it is a matter of prey of the cave bear hunter that he dragged in and then forgot to consume? A natural death of this young one can hardly be assumed.

Besides the large series of jaw pieces, among which are many that also allow the tooth change to be followed and show the milk dentition in its completion, the enormous number of extremity bones, which are also present in all age stages, from the youngest to the fully grown bear, is of high value for the variation statistics of Ursus spelaeus. The largest part of these limb bones shows everywhere the beginning fusion of the joint ends (epiphyses) or their still present separation.

Despite the lack of coherent skeletal parts and entire skeletons, all individual parts belonging to the bear bone framework are found in the Drachenloch, thus also ribs, vertebrae, foot and finger bones, hip bones, shoulder blades, kneecaps, shin bones. Especially the latter occur in striking numbers. Besides the completely preserved bones, there are also many broken ones, but again for the most part not nature or animals caused their breakage or splintering, but the man of the cave period. We have a large number especially of thigh and upper arm bones on which artificial breakage is demonstrable. Likewise on shin bones. An entire collection of broken lower jaw pieces, where only the front part remained, as well as broken hip bones, on which only the part receiving the articular socket for the head of the thigh bone was found, provides proof of human activity.

We had also directed our special attention to evidence of bone gnawing by animals, i.e. postmortem gnawing of bones by predators that later reached the cave. While the Wildkirchli yielded a multitude of such evidence, we know in the Drachenloch to this day not a single bone that shows bite marks from bears. Only those from rodents, thus the snow vole, whose bone-destroying activity we came to know.

According to counts made on the cave bear bone material excavated to date in the Drachenloch, which besides the skulls already fills more than 100 drawers of 60X60 cm and 20 cm height, the number of Ursus spelaeus individuals proven so far can be set at a good 600 pieces. It will increase substantially after completion of the excavations.

We have already touched on the state of preservation of the bones in the description of the find profiles and find layers. The deeper we go into the lower layers, the more brittle and rotten the material becomes. Completely sintered or pressed into hard breccias bones have not yet been encountered, as was the case in the Wildkirchli. Nevertheless, the bones of the lower layers have taken up carbonate of lime in places or are covered with a light sinter layer, which has a preserving effect on the bones as a whole. In places, however, the bone material is so soft and brittle that it falls apart in itself at the slightest touch. In the higher horizons (layers III and II), on the other hand, it is in such excellent condition that one can lift it out by hand without difficulty and danger to the finds, even large tubular bones. They are often of such great freshness that one could believe they were deposited here only a few years ago.

Actual treasure troves of the cave bear are now the already repeatedly mentioned intentional mass accumulations of bones by prehistoric man, whose significance we will learn in the next section. However, it is not a matter of deposition of entire bone frameworks, but consistently only of individual skeletal parts specially preferred and selected by man, which for the most part belong to different bears. Precisely at these storage places are found, as a result of the good sealing of the bones through special stone constructions by man, the unexpectedly well-preserved remains of the cave bear. For this fact we can probably provide no more beautiful and striking proof than through the presentation of a cave bear skull that was found in such a position and which we, tempted by the perfect condition of its bone substance, have sawed through the middle (sagittal section) to learn the structure of the skull interior. The length of the skull measures 44.3, the width 25.8, the height (without lower jaw) 17.5 cm. -– There a downright surprisingly beautiful and instructive picture offered itself to us, which has since aroused the general admiration of zoologists. In our Figure 18 we have represented two such sagittally sawed-through skulls, the one, smaller from the common brown bear (Ursus arctos L.) recent from Russia, the other from the just mentioned find in the Drachenloch. Although these pieces lie thousands of years apart in time, we see no difference in the preservation even of the smallest structural parts; indeed it seems as if the details of the same emerge even much more clearly and distinctly in the cave bear skull. It is a magnificent piece for a more precise brain-anatomical investigation of Ursus spelaeus. The entire mighty olfactory apparatus of this animal confronts us in wonderful state of preservation. Our amazement is aroused especially by the nasal turbinates (Conchae), whose structure is still recognizable down to the finest details. -– Better than in long descriptions we understand there that the cave bear, like incidentally its relative, the common bear, was a pronounced “nose animal”, equipped with the finest sense of smell (“scent”). -– A comparison of the two species with regard to cerebrum and cerebellum extent and shape can perhaps provide us with further clues about their psychological nature.

As in the artificially stacked bone deposits of Ursus spelaeus, so also at the other find sites the fact emerges that in overwhelming numbers consistently only partial pieces of bear skeletons occur. Thus it quite gives the appearance that, as in other bear caves where man dragged in the prey, he also here seldom carried the entire bear prey up to the highly situated cave, but dismembered it at the capture site or at a deeper-lying secure place and only brought selected pieces into his rock dwelling.

Attention must be drawn to a special circumstance at this point. Very many bear caves, especially the Württemberg ones, possess an outstanding characteristic in the occurrence of very many pathological skeletal parts of the cave bear. They are interpreted as a consequence of cave moisture, which produced the familiar “cave gout” in the cave animals and thus the pathological formation of bones (arthritis deformans, exostoses, etc.). In the Wildkirchli we have found only very few pieces of evidence of such bone diseases and malformations as a result of “cave gout” (about 10 pieces among the enormous bone material). Among the even richer bone treasures of the Drachenloch, we have been able to establish to date a single pathological bone (metacarpal bone).

2. Ursus arctos subfossilis Midd.

The zoologist Goldfuss (1821) separated from Ursus spelaeus (cave bear) a form that he named Ursus priscus G. Cuv. because of the formation of the dentition and skull and the presence of a gap tooth behind the canine. Owen then first drew attention to the relationship of this Ursus priscus with the common brown bear (Ursus arctos L.), and Middendorf declared Ursus priscus to be identical with Ursus arctos and named it Ursus arctos subfossilis, to distinguish it from Ursus arctos fossilis, which was found in the uppermost layers of bear caves in some places.96

The Swabian nature and cave researchers Oskar and Eberhard Fraas97 also list this special species Ursus arctos subfossilis, distinct from the cave bear, from the bear caves they researched: Hohlenstein, Hohlenfels, Beilsteinhöhle, Sibyllenhöhle, etc. G. Hagmann98 mentions the same for Vöklinshofen in Alsace, naming as the main characteristic compared to the cave bear the low height of the lower jaw branch.

Having learned in the lower and middle layers (V-III) of the Drachenloch the great formal diversity and the most various frontal gradations of the cave bear and thereby obtained a charming and changing picture of its form, it was surprising to encounter in the uppermost parts of layer III and in the entire layer II a bear form that reminded one quite of that of the common bear (Ursus arctos L.). At first moment one could have easily confused it with the latter. Precise investigation has now shown that it is a matter here of the species mentioned at the beginning: Ursus arctos subfossilis Midd., thus not a juvenile form of the cave bear or even a dwarf form of the same. The find of a complete skull belonging to an adult individual (with worn-down molars!) (skull length = 34.5, width = 18.7, height (without lower jaw) = 13.2 cm), which we reproduce in Figure 19, assigns it to this special bear species. -– The find circumstances also prove that Ursus arctos subfossilis must have lived in find layer III still simultaneously with the cave bear, but that after Ursus spelaeus had already become extinct, Ursus arctos subfossilis dominated the entire layer II, then likewise disappeared before the deposition of the uppermost layer (I).

With other researchers I hold that Ursus spelaeus represents its own species, which however is not the ancestor of Ursus arctos subfossilis in the descent line, but that the latter must be regarded as direct predecessor and ancestor of the common brown bear (Ursus arctos). -– About the cause of the extinction of the cave bear, the files are notoriously not closed. Some authors, like Soergel,99 assume that the cave bear became extinct solely and only as a result of too high specialization and maximum development of the species, while Steinmann100 attributes the disappearance of this animal rather to a reduction and deterioration of the living area and an increasing reduction of living conditions and additionally makes man and his hunt for these animals liable for the decline and extinction of the larger post-ice age mammals. Based on my experiences in the Wildkirchli and in the Drachenloch, I side with Steinmann. A mass deposit of hunting animals captured only by man, as precisely in the Drachenloch, points with all clarity to an incisive intervention of man in the living animal world, a violent reduction of the same through human hunting. And this already at a time when man still possessed the most primitive weapons and even only the hunting method of wildlife traps.

The complete absence of remains of the common or brown bear (Ursus arctos fossilis) in the Drachenloch coincides with the results in the Wildkirchli. This animal probably did not yet live during the time of formation of layers V-II in the Drachenloch or at least certainly did not come into this cave. But also from even later times and those of actual human history, no evidence for the common bear has become known to us from either the Wildkirchli or the Drachenloch.

3. The Common Wolf (Canis lupus L.).

Of this predator species, a single smaller jaw fragment has appeared so far, which however, securely recognizable, corresponds to the wolf. Alongside this several vertebrae and extremity bones as well as individual hand and foot bones. The finds lay in layers III and IV.

4. The Common Fox (Canis vulpes L.).

Here too only several lower jaw fragments from adult animals, likewise provided with teeth. Located in layer III.

5. Chamois (Antilope rupicapra L.).

Of this ruminant, already found in the Wildkirchli before our excavations there and living high in both areas today, we possess from the Drachenloch a whole number of bone remains of various kinds [lower jaws, pieces of upper jaws, extremity bones: thigh bone (femur), shin bone (tibia), ulna (ulna), radius (radius), upper arm bone (humerus), vertebrae, hand and foot bones, ribs, etc.]. Besides the cave bear and its relative, Ursus arctos subfossilis, the chamois is the most frequently occurring mammal in the Drachenloch. The complete absence of entire skeletons and coherent parts likewise indicates that the mountain antelope was already then also a hunting animal of man. Present in layers V-II.

6. Ibex (Capra ibex L.).

Its occurrence in the Drachenloch has hardly surprised us, after it was already known in undoubted remains also from the Wildkirchli. These are, however, much sparser in the Drachenloch; nevertheless we possess well-preserved jaw pieces, vertebrae (epistropheus) and extremity bones, likewise in disconnected finds from layers V-II. The proud-horned animal must therefore have disappeared from the area long ago, despite the fact that it was created for dwelling in it, as the experiences with the ibex settled today not far from the Drachenloch in the Graue Hörner clearly prove. Finds of horn sheaths were not made in the cave; probably these would not have been able to preserve themselves in consideration of the age of this find station.

7. Pine Marten (Mustela martes L.).

A magnificent, complete skull with the two lower jaws from layer II, as well as individual extremity bones. The undoubted occurrence of this small predator has particularly pleased us because its current altitudinal distribution in the Swiss mountains is given only up to 1800 m.

8. Ermine (Mustela = Ictis = Putorius erminea) = Large Weasel.

Present in a single complete jaw (right lower jaw) and few extremity bones, and indeed in layer II, thus like the pine marten relatively young and superficial. Both predators certainly came into the cave without human intervention. Given the known altitudinal distribution up to 3000 m that the ermine is able to maintain, its occurrence here above is well understandable.

9. Marmot (Arctomys marmotta L.).

Found only in some few isolated incisors and in a broken left lower jaw. Skeletal bones that are still undetermined probably also belong to this. In layers IV, III and II.

10. Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus L. = variabilis Pall.).

Also of this rodent several incisors and jaw pieces, as well as body bones. Found lying in layers III and II.

11. Snow Vole (Arvicola nivalis L.).

Here are present entire series of finest little bones from formerly completely deposited skeletons including little skulls. Very interesting is the occurrence of this rodent species not only perhaps in the uppermost and second uppermost layer, but even down into the fourth. The snow vole is accordingly a very old and constant inhabitant of the Drachenloch, who very probably survived the ice ages up here in isolation (summit fauna of the glacial period?), without being forced to migrate during the high glaciations into the deeper-lying, unglaciated areas.101

A whole multitude of small rodent bones from the Drachenloch still awaits expert determination. However, I hardly believe that it will be a matter of another species of vole than the snow vole.

12. Alpine Chough (Pyrrhocorax alpinus L.) and 13. Alpine Accentor (Accentor alpinus L.).

In a multitude of small and smallest little bones, these two bird species are represented in the Drachenloch and indeed from the surface down into the upper parts of layer IV.

If we survey the animal list given here from the prehistoric horizons of the Drachenloch, we obtain the exact image of a typical alpine fauna, as was to be expected given the so extraordinary altitude of the find site. In the number of species it stands approximately equal to that of the Wildkirchli. With the exception of the two bear species, the wolf and the ibex, the animal world of the Drachenloch consists of the same species as today’s alpine fauna. This naturally does not speak for a younger age of this highest-situated prehistoric find site.

Since we are at the uppermost limits of the altitudinal distribution of the animal world in general, it is evident that the otherwise so important huge ungulates and pachyderms for age determinations of prehistoric stations: mammoths (Elephas meridionalis, E. antiquus, E. primigenius), rhinoceroses (Rhinozeros antiquitatis and Rh. Merckii), hippos (Hippopotamus spez.), then also the horses (Equidae), the cattle (Bovidae), indeed even the reindeer and the large deer (giant deer and elk) are completely absent here above. This is because the distribution area of these animals was bound at all times to deeper-lying regions.

In the Wildkirchli, to the great surprise of researchers, evidence for the presence of the cave lion and the cave panther has also been irrefutably provided, whose remains as rarest finds of these species still arouse amazement in the Regional Museum St. Gallen today. I have pointed out on a previous occasion that these two large cats, which indeed are also able to endure colder temperatures, simply followed their prey animals into the Wildkirchli as predators and that therefore their occurrence up to heights of 1500-1600 m above sea level is still completely comprehensible. -– That the mentioned two felids were able to climb the heights of the Drachenloch or even just the Gelbberg (up to 2100 m), we held from the outset to be impossible. In fact, any traces of their presence in the Drachenloch are also lacking.

Even if we assume the tree line for the prehistoric time of the Drachenloch to be substantially higher, the prehistoric fauna of the same always remains an alpine forest fauna, in which the absence of a large number of animal species is the faithful image of the natural species poverty in the high mountains, even if the climatic conditions had been much more favorable than today.

As in the Wildkirchli, so in the Drachenloch animal world the pronounced cave bear period (“l’époque de l’ours de caverne” according to Lartet) confronts us in its full development. True, cave finds never present the entire animal world (fauna) that at any times had settled the surroundings of a cave, since some animals came into it neither as hunting prey of man nor as inhabitants. What we know today from the Drachenloch, however, indicates that at the time of its settlement by man, an animal world rich in individuals dwelt in the area. In this alpine fauna, the cave bear and its younger relative, the predecessor of the common brown bear, maintained dominion. Precisely for this reason they also became the most sought hunting game of prehistoric man, in whose capture and killing he showed great skill. Only thus can we explain the mass finds that were made up here.

X. The Prehistoric Finds in the Drachenloch as Evidence for the Cave’s Habitation by Paleolithic Man.

In various sections of this work on the Drachenloch, indications have been made that this cave and its surroundings have entered the ranks of the oldest prehistoric settlements of Switzerland. Considering prehistoric conditions, indeed even those that existed in the alpine animal world just a few centuries ago in the area of the Drachenloch, it was comprehensible to representatives of zoological science that even this so highly situated cave, already because of its access and the easy passability for animals, especially cave-loving species, could have been a suitable refuge even before the appearance of historical man in the Calfeisentale. Although the cave had been known for a long time, no one seriously thought of approaching its systematic exploration with scientific curiosity. Only the intuitive manner in which teacher Theophil Nigg in Vättis came to discover the cave bear bones gave the impetus to the investigations whose results today, after 4 years, harbor such unimagined consequences for Swiss and general prehistory.

If the proof that Paleolithic man had taken possession of the alpine territory of our fatherland in the Wildkirchli long before the settlement of Kesslerloch and Schweizersbild during an interglacial period was already a complete new discovery for this field, then the fact of simultaneous habitation of even much higher and more remote areas situated in alpine solitude had to call for an even greater transformation of our previous concepts about the very oldest settlements of our country. -– Fundamentally considered and viewed in the light of the facts, however, the discovery of the Drachenloch represents only a leap-like expansion of the results from the Wildkirchli. Just as with the earlier concepts about former mountain movements, so too in prehistory we must begin to reckon with greater distances and movements. The Drachenloch will provide the impetus for greater attention to be paid to our alpine caves in the future, since it is now proven that the primitive wild hunter did not shrink from any distances in the mountains either, when nature provided him with the conditions for life.

It may be said here with all frankness that the author of this work, as leader of the excavations, approached the interpretation of the find facts in the Drachenloch with the same caution demanded by science as was practiced in the Wildkirchli research. For the reasons already cited, the thought that soon imposed itself more and more after the beginning of the work, of possibly still encountering the indubitable legacy of cave man under certain circumstances, was suppressed, despite the fact that it is an empirical fact that the cave bear, where it appears as a find in caves, often provides a kind of guidance for the discovery of human traces. -– Against all negative presuppositions, specific “precautions” and “caution postulates” that were also recorded in our diaries, the evidence for a human settlement of this area contemporaneous with the cave bear became ever stronger and more compelling. We finally had to submit to recognizing the facts.

It is now our task to mention in the following the finds and find circumstances that constitute the proof for the prehistoric settlement of the Drachenloch. In this case, it is not a matter today of the detailed descriptions of the find objects of a scientific nature that belong to the special publication, but solely of a shorter presentation of the general findings within the framework of general comprehensibility.

Evidence for the Prehistoric Settlement of the Drachenloch.

We have already named individual pieces of evidence in the section on the find layers and the paleontological finds.

1. Nature of the Animal Finds.

All bone finds of larger mammals, especially of bears in the prehistoric layers II—V, belong to the youngest, younger, and those up to just mature and reproductively capable age stages of these animals. Their presence points with certainty to the presence of the diluvial hunter, who carried the animals as hunting prey, but in part also only selected pieces of them, into his cave. -– A natural death of such younger bear animals through a continuous two-meter thick find profile could not be proven by any arguments. -– Old individuals that had fled here for their final sleep are completely absent in the Drachenloch. We stand here before the same phenomenon as presented by all those caves in which prehistoric man has been proven through his own legacy (tools, ornaments, etc.).

2. Distribution of the Bone Finds.

The distribution of the bone finds is such that it can only be explained by human intention and arrangement. If only animals had inhabited the cave, then remains of their food or also bones of their prey animals would have to be present here in much greater numbers and especially would have to be found on the same traces of tooth activity. Such bones would under all circumstances also have to fill the largest cave space I, since it offered the bear enough room for the dismemberment of his prey. As we know, this cave space was almost devoid of finds, while in contrast a striking concentration of bones prevailed in the two following, inner caves II and III, which can only and solely be explained by the fact that these were the most favorable places for human habitation in the entire cave system, i.e., the safest and most conducive to health.

3. Mass Accumulations and Intentional Storage of Cave Bear Bones

In cave parts II and III, and almost exclusively along the cave rock walls, while the middle passage in cave II contained only splinter material, very many foot and hand carpal bones. The most certain proof for intentional accumulation resulted, however, from the fact that along the cave walls at a distance of 40—60 cm from them, actual stone walls up to 80 cm high were built up. These consisted of Seewer limestone slabs from the cave itself and were laid almost completely horizontally on top of each other for the purpose of rough masonry construction. Even our workers immediately recognized the intentional construction of these little walls, which was as primitive as that of the oldest stone slab alpine huts on Alp Gelbberg and in the Tersoltale. Any thought of a ceiling collapse in cave II, whose individual slabs would have come into this horizontal position, was out of the question in view of the absence at the cave ceiling of any break corresponding to the collapse (negative). The explanation of the whole thing became complete, however, when each time in the space between the artificial wall and the cave rock wall there were proper stores of skeletal parts of the cave bear, which likewise showed the image of the intentionally gathered and stacked. But where such stone walls were missing, the bone accumulations also remained absent.

If one examined the material present in the “magazines” more closely, a very peculiar sight presented itself. There were for the most part skulls of the cave bear, partly complete, partly shattered and provided with holes, often 3—4 and even more pieces on top of and next to each other, even in the same orientation of skull position. As a continuation of these skulls, particularly the completely preserved ones, the two first cervical vertebrae (atlas and epistropheus) belonging to the same head pieces could usually be found, while the remaining cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae were practically never present as a whole, not even in the neighboring profile parts.102

Associated with these skulls were found mainly large limb bones (femur, tibia, humerus, ulna, and radius), whereby it was shown that very rarely did even two or three belong to the same skeleton, but rather different ages and sexes were represented. Such a mixing of the most diverse components would never have been possible even through the strongest rooting around among bones by animals (younger and older bears). The great number of these limb long bones is complete, yet there were also such, quite particularly humeri,103 that were demonstrably broken by human hand. Skulls or long bones struck by falling ceiling rock, as well as bones deformed or compressed by layer pressure, were found nowhere, whereas there is a bear skull whose entire upper half up to the rearmost part of the bone ridge (crista) is completely removed. Since no fragments could be found far and wide, it can only have been man who performed this “decapitation” of the bear in a horizontal direction. No less probative are skulls that possess lateral impacts that are of very old origin. Likewise, we have two skulls with a smaller hole each on the left and right on the forehead. These are all skulls that had not suffered under stone pressure. The form of the perforation points to an angular striking instrument as the cause.

Absolutely valid proofs for the remarkable bone accumulation by man were brought by the find conditions at the entrance to the third cave and in the front part of it. Instead of the bone stores along the cave walls, a kind of stone cists surprised here, rectangular masonry made of rough, flat stone slabs that originated from the weathering debris of the cave, built up, more or less closed on all sides and covered with a large cover slab. About six such stone cists were found in total. Whenever a flat-lying larger stone slab came to light in the excavation profile, one could be sure that one was dealing with an intentional construction. The actual surprise followed only when two of our strong men lifted the mentioned slab. There lay in the stone cists, mostly well oriented, skulls of cave bears on top of each other and beside them a number of large limb bones, exactly the same as in cave II behind the stone walls. Here too always again unrelated skeletal parts, whose position could never be explained without human intervention. These were the purest osteological museums: sometimes 2—3, sometimes 5 and more skulls, along with other limb bones. All pieces in the most wonderful preservation (cf. the two illustrations of Ursus spelaeus skulls that originate from one of these bone magazines). From one of them a cave bear skull was removed through whose left zygomatic arch (opening between skull and zygomatic arch) a large femur was drawn, which could only be freed from its position when it was rotated a good quarter around its longitudinal axis. We repeated the experiment dozens of times after lifting this treasure with always the same result. Only man could have done this! Even if one wanted to acknowledge not a single one of the facts listed so far for prehistoric man in the Drachenloch: this one just mentioned is accessible to no other interpretation than the single one that speaks for man, who could achieve such a position of the femur through the zygomatic arch opening. All other bones given to this skull in addition belong entirely to different individuals.104 Characteristic for all skull magazines is that always some large long bones, intact and broken at the ends, are added.

There is no doubt whatsoever that we are dealing here with an intentional storage of hunting trophies by prehistoric man, which belongs entirely within the framework of primitive hunting and sacrificial cult, as we encounter it in prehistoric periods, indeed even still among today’s primitive natural peoples105 who engage in hunting.

This assumption is justified above all by the intentional framing through the altar-like stone construction with cover slab conclusion, the selection of the most important skeletal parts, skulls and the largest limb bones, while the less conspicuous bones, which otherwise play such a dominating role in the remains of the cave bear in other layer parts, are practically almost absent. It is also significant that on such cult sites always the largest, most beautiful skulls and limb bones occur, thus the most valuable of the entire hunting prey. This corresponds to a kind of primitive sacrificial cult, where the most valuable object was still the sacrificial object (no substitutive or symbolic sacrifice, no sacrificial meal). “Cult,” says Schürtz in his Prehistory of Culture, we call all attempts to influence the gods and spirits through specific actions; they should establish the equilibrium of the mind and create a confident mood in man.106

Should we think of the Drachenloch hunter that he pursued the accumulation of his hunting prey bones without sense and purpose? How much simpler it would have been to throw them out of the cave and thus keep the space for himself! -– Without going into the further significance of these cult sites here -– the matter of a more thorough treatment -— it can be said that in the Drachenloch for the first time proof can be provided for such an oldest cultural site of primitive cult of man and thus also the fact is secured of the already awakened higher soul life of man, which already belongs to the realm of spiritual culture.

The comparison of bone storage in the two cave parts II and III, i.e., the presence of certain differences in arrangement, makes the assumption of the cave’s habitation by different and temporally separated (i.e., earlier and later) hunting hordes appear justified. Both, however, knew the hunting trophy cult; in cave III (later settled) it points to higher development.

4. Prehistoric Coal Hearths.

The presence of fireplaces, remains of burned wood, ash, burned earth and stones forms, insofar as they occur in undisturbed find layers with representatives of an old animal world, with human tools made of stone, bone, etc., generally with prehistoric remains, always one of the surest proofs for the former presence of man. Since the oldest prehistoric times, fire has played the role of “man’s most faithful companion and only man’s companion.” “The history of artificially produced and tended fire is that of human culture. Fire was hunting assistant, field hand (in clearing and fertilizing new land) and kitchen slave; it served for hardening and hollowing wood and for overcoming metals, as well as for cremation. Above all, however, fire warms the stiffened or tired limbs; it illuminates the night of the cave and the forest; it scares away hostile beasts from the resting places in the thicket.” (M. Hoernes, “Natural and Prehistoric History of Man”, Vol. II, p. 4: Fire). No wonder that fire already enjoyed high veneration in prehistoric mankind as well as in historical periods (sacred fires, eternal fires, etc.), like no other achievement of human discovery.

One can empathize with the surprise and joy that befell us one day (on August 20, 1917) when we suddenly encountered in one of the cross profiles under the entrance from the first to the second cave of the Drachenloch at the bottom of layer IV (1.5 m depth) a typical fire layer of coal-black color, which consisted of ash and totally burned wood remains. It possessed an extension of 1.4 m in the width of the cross profile, a length (along the cave axis) of 85—95 cm and was spread out in beautiful horizontal position. The extremely carefully conducted removal and examination of this coal layer revealed that it rested in thoroughly undisturbed position in relation to the other find layers, thus on a primary basis and belonged to the fourth layer with the typical remains of the cave bear. All doubts were excluded that it might be a subsequently dug-in, perhaps still reaching into historical time wood firing. It lay there like a kind of mighty black cake with arched center, in a thickness of 12—15 cm dimension, which everywhere flattened toward its outer edges, and each time narrowed to 2—3 cm and finally wedged out completely. A quantity of smaller bones (from hand and foot carpals, metacarpal and metatarsal joints) and splintered long bones lay in the middle of the coal hearth and were, like a large number of smaller rock fragments (Seewer limestones), partly completely burned, partly only superficially roasted. The earth lying under the hearth fire also showed typical fire and drying traces, indeed it had become literally red and powdery like the dusty ash of the actual fire layer through the heat prevailing over it. Given the rather strong extension of this coal hearth (open fire!), one can designate it as a fireplace layer or fire layer. The exact examination of the charcoal remains, some still very well preserved and showing the wood structure perfectly, revealed that they are those of mountain pines. Naturally, traces of this fire layer that had been scattered from the hearth could be found everywhere nearby in the red-brown layer. If one could establish a so-called open fire hearth in this undoubtedly artificial deposit, the excavations under the entrance portal from cave II to cave III yielded an even more convincing factual picture. There, likewise in layer IV, which again showed no signs whatsoever of layer disturbances, a proper fire pit came to light. It was completely framed by a double layer of Seewer limestone pieces, and over it spread an approximately ½ m² large, flat cover slab. The lateral stones were partly burned, the cover slab strongly blackened on the lower side. Within the fire pit, at its bottom, lay a pile of typical ash, charcoal remains with mountain pine structure in small chunks, burned bones, especially the bone joints of “cave bear paws” (!).

These were so far the two largest hearth fireplaces; other smaller installations of this kind showed themselves at several places, under circumstances they are also displaced remains of the two main fires. -– Quite striking is their position each time under the entrances. Very probably this was connected with the smoke exhaust conditions, since the smoke from the narrow cave passages drew up more rapidly into the cave chimneys (shafts) and from there flowed out along the ceiling to the outside. Experiments with our now and then also “sooting” acetylene machine revealed that the smoke always withdrew from the two inner cave parts to the outside in a short time. If the first large cave did not allow a coal hearth to be discovered, this is explicable because it contains much moisture during the rainy season, whereas in the inner parts relative dryness prevailed and the fire could be much better “tended.” For the constant maintenance of the glowing fire was a highly important matter and a constant concern for the prehistoric hunter and cave man.

It is now hardly surprising if we also mention the fact that hard next to and somewhat under the mentioned fire pit was located the likewise already mentioned bone altar on which lay the cave bear skull with the femur drawn through its zygomatic arch opening. Without doubt these two things are most closely connected with each other, since they also belong to the same find layer: the fire pit to the left, the sacrificial site to the right! (Fig. 15).

5. Finds of Used Bones and Bone Tools.

Among the evidence for the presence of a prehistoric settlement, the tools of man (made of stone, bone, wood, metals) brought to light at the find site have always played the decisive role in prehistoric research. Their shaping, particularly that of stone tools, has led, alongside other finds and find facts (also of the fauna accompanying them), to the foundation of chronological systems, of prehistoric time periods, of which we named at least those of the Paleolithic in the first section. -– While it is true that only a plurality of human tool finds in typical form-giving provides the justification for building a typology of prehistoric industrial documents and this in turn provides essential services for a kind of cultural stage determination according to the succession of find layers, it should not be overlooked that in the classification of tools we are dealing rather with a technical system that represents only a part of the cultural picture of a prehistoric time period or various periods. Today’s systems also still possess gaping gaps that require filling. Every schematization, however, is harmful to the progress of the still young prehistoric science. Every prehistoric individual research represents a complex of conditions107 in which geological-petrographic, geographical-ethnographic, anatomical-anthropological, zoological-botanical-paleontological, meteorological-climatic questions await answering. -– From this recognition we have to view precisely the research results from the Wildkirchli and to an even greater extent those of the Drachenloch, since they cannot be subordinated to today’s conventional systems with absolute agreement.

Already at the beginning of the excavations in the Drachenloch, a fact presented itself to us that was very reminiscent of the Wildkirchli, namely those places in the layers where non-local, i.e., cave-foreign rocks (quartzites) were found as certainly determined tools (scrapers, gravers, points) of the primitive hunter. In company with these typical stone tools, which were always bound to important work places of prehistoric man, there always lay masses of broken bones whose fracture edges, despite their prehistoric age, had still remained completely sharp-edged. The destruction of these bones, which for the most part belonged to the strongest limb bones, was the work of man. -– Now, however, next to these sharp-edged bone pieces, individual and in small numbers, bone fragments with completely rounded fracture edges were also found. Shape and rounding indicated indisputably as the most primitive bone tools, as they had been recognized from the Wildkirchli man. When assembling the individual forms, important series of types resulted, whose hand-suitability and usability can only be attributed to man.108 Above all, the polish peculiar to them can only have arisen through use.

Admittedly, these artificial bone pieces and the bone tools checked for their serviceability, which have since found their authentication as such also through comparison with the simplest bone instruments of today’s natural peoples, stand at the most primitive level of bone technology.109 The bone instruments recognized everywhere in the Paleolithic stage of the Aurignacian already possess a high degree of perfection (pointe à base fendue); the partly already artfully worked points, needles, etc. of the Solutrean are significantly more advanced, but especially the highly developed bone instrumentarium of the Magdalenian. In the Wildkirchli we stand at the lowest boundary of the first use of bone as a tool, where it is often difficult to distinguish sharply the forms of creating nature from those intentionally (intentionally) wanted by man. A simple consideration, however, leads us to the certain conclusion that the bone tool could never have first appeared in the form, for example, as in the Aurignacian, which stage has always been considered the lowest and first horizon for typical bone tools until now. Naturally there had to be even more primitive forms that are the precursors of both well-formed stone and bone tools.

If one takes all these facts into consideration and compares the finds testifying to man in the Drachenloch so far, it will hardly be surprising if, given the great agreement with the prehistoric site of the Wildkirchli, the intentional use of bone by man could also be proven beyond doubt in the Drachenloch, and indeed in a series of forms that completely agrees with that in the Wildkirchli (Wildkirchli type). Here too it is a matter of the simplest kind of use of bone, which however is the faithful image of the work activity then necessary for man, namely the skinning of hunting animals (bears), the preparation and smoothing of animal hides that served man as clothing, underlayment and cover on the sleeping place.

Without losing ourselves in details, which again remain reserved for monographic description, the most important types of bone instruments shall be briefly presented here and displayed in figures 20—25. From the significant find material we select:

a) Rounded, worn and polished bone fragments,

particularly of larger long bones, which could serve partly as hide removers, partly as hide smoothers (Fig. 20). It is striking that with these pieces, of which over 80 are present, the spongy part of the inner bone wall is usually still perfectly sharp, while only the bone fracture edges show typical wear through use. Only in Fig. 1 on this plate do we see a totally rounded piece in which the substantia spongiosa is also leveled, or has almost disappeared through much use of the instrument or through intentional removal. Numerous bone fragments show only the beginnings of use, still others, which were found associated with completely rounded ones, are in the stage of the instrument prepared for use.

b) Fragments of fibulae of the cave bear.

In completely consistent manner with the bone tool types of the Wildkirchli, a very striking quantity of fibula fragments was found in the Drachenloch, which, if they were all merely natural pieces, would in no way correspond in their number to the other skeletal bones, e.g., the tibia closest to the fibula. It is significant that the number of completely preserved fibulae uncovered in all excavation profiles is extremely limited, since the ratio to the broken fibulae is not too high at 1:10. The fibula (along with ribs and some other bones) is now the most easily breakable bone on the bear skeleton. By means of a simple precaution it can be artificially broken through the middle so that the fracture surfaces on both sides form an oblique plane, and the partial pieces form regular blunt points at the fracture ends. This is the “flute beak fracture” on thin bones, as surgery also knows it in the broken human fibula. As is well known, the fibula possesses two thick-knobbed joint ends (epiphyses) which, when the bone is broken into two parts, are distinguished by their great hand-suitability. If one takes the knobbed end in the hand, one or the other partial piece of the fibula proves to be a very useful instrument. No wonder that the primitive wild hunter already knew and used it, since we know that there are still hunting tribes today that use it for removing the hide from hunting prey animals, so as not to injure skin and hair, which are used as a whole for clothing the human body.

We may regard these fibula pieces all the more unhesitatingly as hide removers, generally as tools, since the certain signs of wear are found on their fracture surfaces, which is often so far advanced that the fracture surface looks completely polished and shiny, which never occurs with natural fractures. With many pieces one has the impression that the fracture surface, initially still angular and rough after the fracture, was leveled and scraped by means of a stone instrument to make the bone instrument as smooth as possible at the working surface.

If one compares these hide removers made from fibula fragments with the same instruments from the Wildkirchli, complete agreement results regarding their size, the shape of the fracture, the wear surface and the angle that it forms with the shaft of the bone (32—36° = “working angle”).110 At both find sites, moreover, the proximal joint end with a part of the bone shaft was used as a tool, since this possesses the more suitable handle. Figure 21 shows such bone instruments, while the following plate 22 reproduces a number of fibula fragments that were probably already intentionally broken but remained unused, which can be proven by the still sharp fracture edges and surfaces.

The most certain information about the relationship of the used to the still unused fibula fragments is given to us especially by the find circumstances of both. It has been established with surprising certainty that both types appear stored together. Among other things, at one and the same find site, over a larger stone slab near the southern cave rock wall in the second section, 31 pieces of such broken fibulae were found, partly with rounded, worn fracture surface, partly but also with fracture edges that had remained sharp. The most convincing thing was their position in the same orientation next to and on top of each other, whereby the same (proximal) joint end was directed toward one side, the fracture ends toward the opposite side. But the end complementing the fragments was nowhere present at the site. A more unambiguous proof for intentional arrangement possible only through man can hardly be provided, for how could such an orientation of many similar bone pieces be conceived, say through the assistance of the bear or other animals? -– We always encountered such accumulations of fibulae again, whose appearance in this manner could not be explained by any natural influence.

c) Bone fragments in typical point form.

United with the edge-rounded bone fragments and the fibula fragments, among the large number of broken bones there were also bone splinters whose intentional pointing and subsequent use can be proven beyond doubt, particularly through the wear and polish on the bone edges and at the point. Our figure 23 shows us a series of such bone points. Among them are also lamellar splitterings of canine teeth of the cave bear, whose wear can be quickly recognized (Fig. 2 in the lower row). By no means are these tooth splinters natural fragments or are the leveled tooth surfaces the known flat wear facets that are frequently found on canine teeth of the cave bear, where the enamel substance is worn away by the mutual friction of the two canine teeth in the upper and lower jaw. These grinding surfaces very often simulate artificial grinding, as one also finds on tooth points.

A splendid piece of evidence for human work that withstands the strictest criticism is the bone splinter shown in our figure 23 in the middle of the upper row. This is ground three times on the left edge toward the top. Upon exact examination with a sharp magnifying glass, one clearly perceives the parallel fine scratches created by work (friction) on the object.

Naturally there are among the bone points a number of such that only show traces of work begun with them. With many splinters it cannot be decided whether nature or man has been active in their shaping. Decisive are always only the working surfaces.

If we have dealt with the bone fragments named under a—c with undoubtedly used bones (Os utilisés) and bone tools, then mention shall be made below of a number of bone finds that one must unhesitatingly count among the objects touched by human hand. These are:

d) Hip joint sockets,

Hip joint sockets whose connections with the hip bone (os coxae), namely the processes to the ilium (os ilium), ischium (os ischii) and pubis (os pubis) are missing, i.e., have been knocked off. It is well known to the practical cave researcher that the hip bone of very young cave bears immediately disintegrates into its above-named individual parts when removed from the ground debris, but that hip bones of 1—3 year old and even older animals of this type also break very easily under the pressure of the earth layers and rock blocks lying over them or through human treading. Therefore it is usually difficult to obtain completely preserved hip bones for the assembly of a whole skeleton. They must always be united from the fragments present on site to form the whole bone.

Among the hip bones of the cave bear found in the Drachenloch, only four pieces were completely preserved. All others, however, even those of adult individuals, were smashed, but always in such a way that the hip joint sockets remained intact, while the processes are only present in stump form, so that the socket (the acetabulum) can be grasped on two of the processes with both hands. We had already found a sufficient explanation for this phenomenon in the Wildkirchli. In the Drachenloch it came to light even more convincingly, since there were proper accumulations of such hip joint sockets, mostly in isolated position. And indeed likewise at those places where the already described “bone magazines” were located.

Of over 200 such joint socket pieces, there are a number whose upper rim of the socket shows visible traces of shorter or longer wear through rubbing, often to the complete flattening of the socket rim. The position of the named objects in the find profiles, which here again speaks a decisive word for explanation, has proven in all cases that no natural influence (weathering or chemical decomposition of the socket rim, friction through overlying stones, etc.) could have caused this condition (see figure 24).

Dr. med. L. Pfeiffer in Weimar,111 who has occupied himself for years with the study of stone and bone tools, accompanied by practical experiments on their manufacture and use, calls such hip joint sockets of the most diverse wild animals that have come to light in other prehistoric sites bell scrapers. He counts them without further ado among the human bone tools, since their circular cup rim is flattened as a result of use. After comparison with the same tools among primitive natural peoples, they could have served as hide scrapers like among Indian and Eskimo tribes. Often one also finds them as drinking cups, blood bowls and lamp (oil) bowls, for which purposes they were excellently suited. -– As with primitive stone and bone tools, individual finds may only exceptionally be regarded as full proof, so here too only a large number of similar objects decides in favor of their intentional use by human hand. Of powerful evidential force in the Drachenloch, however, are the accumulations of 25—30 pieces of such joint sockets at one and the same place, apart from the processes of the same and from the femurs that belonged to them.

e) Broken bear lower jaws.

Alongside the super-abundant quantity of completely preserved bear mandibular halves (over 300 pieces), which partly also came to light in heaps, we encountered a number of mandibles broken almost in the middle, in which the entire rear part with the joint processes was missing, while only the front part with the often splintered canine tooth was present. Often this was also missing, as well as a part or all molars. Since not a single one of the jaw fragments was demonstrably lying under fallen cover slabs, where the associated part would have had to be located, but the jaw itself is a very hard bone that does not break easily, especially in the fresh state, only the explanation also given by Dr. L. Pfeiffer can be applied, that these jaws were broken in the hand of man. Bite marks from larger predators are completely absent on these jaw pieces. Whether they were used as striking weapons or as chopping instruments can naturally no longer be determined today. It is peculiar how some mandibles have the fracture site far forward toward the canine tooth, peculiar also how never two related, i.e., stemming from the same mandible pieces (left and right) have been found. -– In figure 25 some of these jaw fragments (including also the old, introduced jaw) are presented.

f) Skull bone pieces of younger bears.

The same phenomenon as in the Wildkirchli surprised us also in the Drachenloch. Here as there, mostly in accumulative position but always isolated, individual skull pieces of cave bears were found that did not yet possess complete fusion of the bone edges with the other skull bones. They therefore always belonged to young individuals. Their exact comparison has shown that of the several hundred pieces almost throughout only the parietal bones (os parietale) are present and of these not two pieces belong together, thus originate from entirely different skulls. Their intentional storage stands beyond doubt according to the find circumstances. These bone shells were also partly literally “nest-like” together and laid on top of each other. Very striking is the partly shiny, worn-looking convex outer surface of the skull shells, but especially in individual pieces the visible rounding of the shell edges. One gains the impression that these bone shells must have been much in human hands (drinking bowls? blood bowls?).

A main characteristic of all the finds of rounded and used by man bone fragments and other bone parts listed here is their position in direct proximity to the bone hearths, the mass accumulations of bones (skulls, etc.). In very many cases it could also be established that these used bones were located hard on the surface of larger stone slabs and on stone benches along the cave walls, only very rarely in the midst of earthy layer parts.

A natural rolling (rounding, grinding) alongside the sharp-edged old bone fragments occurring in the cave to 99% has been completely excluded in the Drachenloch at all times due to the lack of any considerable water flow. It would also be thoroughly inexplicable how only relatively so few broken bone pieces would have experienced rounding, while the majority of all other fragments even from the oldest find layers of the Drachenloch have retained their sharp edges. The circumstance that angular and rounded pieces lie together in the same layers also deserves special attention. Equally important is the fact that the front large cave (I), which is still water-bearing in the ground debris today, contains no rounded bone fragments, but only sharp-edged ones.

6. Finds of Stone Tools.

The proof of the presence of stone tools in the cave of Wildkirchli formed the final and most unassailable evidence for its former habitation by prehistoric man. All the more so since it turned out that the rock material from which the tools were created was not of the same nature as the standing cave rock (Schrattenkalk) or like any other stage of the Säntis-Cretaceous limestone. The raw stones for the tools therefore do not originate from the cave, they are all of “non-local” nature and were carried up into the cave by man and here knocked into tools, formed, sharpened and after stronger use again sharpened (“retouched”). With the exception of three pieces, all Wildkirchli tools consist of quartzite rock, which, like the flint from other prehistoric sites, was best suited for cutting tools because of its hardness. Admittedly, not such fine forms could be struck from the raw quartzites as is the case with genuine flint, which is why we encounter many pieces in the Wildkirchli that represent quite rough, unformed tools, but nevertheless did their service.

A precise examination of the Wildkirchli stone tool material has revealed that these quartzites originate from the nearest northern foreland of the Säntis mountains. Primarily these are so-called oil quartzites, as they are still found today in the Eocene flysch of the Weissbachtal and at the Fähnern as exotic blocks in the flysch.112 They are mostly of olive-greenish coloration. These oil quartzites provided the most readily usable material for stone tools because it could be struck into thin, disk-like and sharp-edged pieces. The other part of the quartzites was collected in the Nagelfluh113 of the Tertiary in the Weissbachtal and at the Kronberg and consists of various colored radiolarian hornstones [black phtanites, lydites, red and green radiolarian hornstones, of which latter the actual origin (Rhätikon nappe?) is not yet certainly determined].

The Wildkirchli stone tools, which consist of such quartzites, possess for the most part the certain traces of edge working (retouching), which however is often rough, coarse and partly blurred due to the less favorable rock material. Besides the forms that generally conform to the triangle (point with thicker base) or rectangle (scraper, graver) and therefore count as “types,” there are a multitude of formless, so-called atypical pieces, as they are known from many prehistoric settlements. Then rough striking pieces, flakes, unfinished tools and core pieces (nuclei) are also not lacking. Precisely the last-mentioned are the proof that these raw or core pieces were dragged up into the cave as wholes and from them the tool splinters were then struck off.

Despite the most careful comparison of the Wildkirchli stone tools with a number of non-Swiss sites, it has not been possible to bring them into agreement with the horizon of the pronounced classical Mousterian of the Paleolithic, since the Wildkirchli finds behave divergently in form, striking and edge working to a large extent. On the other hand, the specialists are unanimous that it is a matter in the Wildkirchli of a substage of the Mousterian, the so-called Old Mousterian or Primitive Mousterian (Obermaier, Penck, Boule and others).114 I will express my own view at the end of this section. So much is certain that the Wildkirchli cannot be incorporated into any Paleolithic stage before or after the Mousterian.115

For the following discussions, the reference to the fact may be interesting that several thoroughly typical stone tools were also found in the Wildkirchli that were not made from quartzite, but from Cretaceous (Seewer limestone) rock of the Säntis. Two of them show no edge working, another however very regular edge working. We have here a certain reference point for the use of limestone when the quartzite material became scarce. It is interesting to know that these Seewer limestone pieces must originate from the uppermost part of the Ebenalp or then from the 300 m deeper Bommenalp, since they were only standing there as they still are today. The Seewer limestone of these two places is particularly distinguished by its easy splintering into thin-slabbed shards that yield very sharp-edged tools when broken.

Soon after we had encountered the first find evidence for the presence of primitive man in the Drachenloch cave (coal hearths, used bone fragments, mass accumulations of bones, etc.), we were actively occupied by the hope of also encountering here unambiguous stone tools that would so to speak complete the picture of the prehistoric station in the Drachenloch. -– On our “wish list” stood, as is easy to understand, non-local rocks, quartzites, which like in the Wildkirchli are not standing in the cave itself.

It was known to us that quartzitic rocks occur in the so-called wild flysch of the Gray Horns116 and indeed in the direct northern continuation of the Drachenberg over the Furggla to the Piz Sol, and eastward in the Zanayhörner, the Vogelegg and the Seeligrat. Besides mighty quartzite banks, mica sandstones, breccias, polygenic conglomerates, one also finds the foreign exotic blocks117 embedded in the wild flysch. In the wild flysch we also encounter Eocene oil quartzites, entirely of the nature of those at the Fähnern that the Wildkirchli man used as material for his tools. We could hardly familiarize ourselves with the thought in the Drachenloch that prehistoric man had already carried out the ridge wandering to procure his tool material there.

But already in the first summer of our excavations in the Drachenloch we discovered much nearer located occurrences of quartzitic rocks, indeed it even turned out that such material is standing in the Drachenberg wall itself, namely on the east and west sides of it, but quite especially at the southwest corner in the mighty isolated rock pillar. The up to one decimeter wide, whitish to yellow and even reddish calcite veins covered with iron oxide hydrate had long attracted our attention on the east rock wall, only a few meters to the left and right of the cave gate, which spread as filling veins in narrow vertically and obliquely positioned crevices through all Cretaceous stages of the Drachenkopf (from siliceous limestone to Seewer limestone). Only upon closer examination of these calcite veins did we perceive that the middle part of these veins does not consist of calcite, but of white quartzite. A better opportunity for the use of quartzitic rock for the manufacture of tools could hardly have presented itself to the Drachenloch inhabitant!

But already the first tests of this quartzite rock taught us otherwise. If one strikes it with an iron hammer or with limestones, it breaks into a thousand small, pointed splinters that, despite their rock hardness, prove so brittle that they can partly be literally pulverized by means of pressure from the hands. A real longer cutting edge, however, cannot be produced even with the greatest care in striking. So one can understand that in the entire cave debris excavated to date, with the exception of a few formless white quartzite chunks, which however were certainly introduced by man like a number of Gault limestone rocks from the outer rock wall,118 no actual tools from this white quartz of the calcite veins were found.

Should the Drachenloch inhabitant in the end have managed without the use of stone tools? Was it not proven that he had often carried only partial pieces of the cave bear up into the cave? Might the disemboweling and cutting up of the hunting prey not have already taken place outside his actual dwelling place?

One day the riddle’s solution was found! Around the fire hearth and near one of the mass bone stores, on a suspiciously positioned stone slab that adjoined the nearby cave rock wall, real accumulations of smaller rock shards of Seewer limestone showed themselves. One could not possibly explain them as mere ceiling weathering pieces or as remains of a rock slab that had splintered when falling down. Next to such with still completely sharp preserved edges also lay pieces whose edges were totally rounded and partly underground weathered or decomposed. But quite conspicuous were they in their form, which completely reminded of the stone artifacts of the Wildkirchli: partly regular points with broader base, partly splinters that possess a cutting edge and a blunt adaptation back located on the opposite side for the hand holding the tool (Figure 26). A single such occurrence could naturally not yet suffice as full proof for the use of these rock pieces as cutting tools. But the find picture repeated itself, always there where also larger accumulations of bone tools were present, where man was proven through the already named cult sites, there where fire hearth and fire pit stood nearby. Furthermore, these “tool shards” were found only in layers II—V, while the surface layer and also the large cave contained no such accumulations of rock fragments. Strangely enough, no real resharpening notches (retouches) can be proven on any of them on the cutting edges. Yet several of the Wildkirchli artifacts made of Seewer limestone likewise possess no edge notches.

Position, form and occurrence of the Seewer limestone shards allow, after a series of types have been found assembled, no other interpretation than that for real stone tools of the Drachenloch man.

We have carried out a series of experiments that should provide us with the certainty whether such Seewer limestone pieces in hand-suitable form are also suitable as cutting instruments for fresh meat and particularly for skin and leather of animals. It has been proven beyond doubt that freshly struck Seewer limestone primarily forms large, sharp cutting edges that are capable of cutting through soft, yielding meat as well as completely dried animal hides without great effort as desired. Only the circumstance comes into consideration that the first approach, the first pressure with the limestone knife happens as powerfully and quickly as possible. Otherwise one achieves only a not deeply reaching impression in meat and skin. -– I refer here particularly to the investigations and experiments of Dr. med. L. Pfeiffer in Weimar,119 who during his visit to our Wildkirchli collection in the Heimatmuseum St. Gallen expressed his particular joy over the Seewer limestone artifacts from the Wildkirchli.

Since the Drachenloch inhabitant of oldest times certainly did not know the oil quartzite from the wild flysch of the Gray Horns, since he also knew nothing to do with the fine-fractured white quartzite in the calcite veins of the Drachenkopf rock walls: what remained for him finally other than to select the excellently breaking, sharp fracture-edged Seewer limestone of the cave itself for cutting tools? For scraping and cleaning hides this rock was already excellently suited because of the large, uniformly directed fracture edges, as our experiments themselves have again proven in an unassailable manner.

Why did the Drachenloch hunter not resharpen (retouch) his stone tools, which the kind mother nature held ready for him right at the nearest cave wall, when the cutting edge became worn, worked off, blunted by the work? This fact can be well justified. Where the basic material for the cutting tools, the scrapers and gravers, lay so near and in such great quantity, any improvement of his tool would have had no sense and value for the primitive hunter, because the rock piece worn at the edge through work could immediately be replaced by a fresh sharp fracture piece from the cave wall.

We stand here in prehistory before a completely new fact! Where we have looked around until now in the Paleolithic settlements of Europe, there we have been accustomed to encountering in limestone caves, as irrefutable proof for the former presence of cave man, stone tools made of quartzitic material. Only such have also been fully recognized as tools of primitive man until now. All this is easily understood when we can also prove in the vicinity of prehistoric settlements those rock layers in which (even in limestone) deposits of flint nodules or other quartzitic rock, often as intermediate layers, occur. Things stand quite differently when the opportunity for obtaining useful tool material, like quartzite, is lacking, but man was nevertheless provided with all necessary conditions for successful hunting of wild animals, for his own shelter and protection from wind and weather, as in our Drachenloch! We know, besides the Wildkirchli, of other prehistoric sites where likewise the cave rock -– and there it is exclusively limestone -– was used by man as a tool alongside quartzitic material. On the other hand, I know of no single Paleolithic settlement in which only the cave rock alone provided the material for the creation of stone tools. I do not doubt at all that often in Paleolithic caves, where the presence of former man is certainly proven through other find evidence, products from human hand made of cave rock have been overlooked because they were not counted among the artifact inventory of man. With regard to what has been said, I would like not to let the suggestion escape me to recommend to all future researchers of alpine caves to cast a sharp eye during excavations on occurrences as we have encountered them in the Drachenloch. Only so will we arrive at the final clarification of important scientific questions!


One of the first questions that is always put to the cave researcher by the layman is that: “Have human bones also come to light?” In doing so, the questioner remembers the many grave finds from later and mostly historical times, especially in the open country, or else the few remains that the research of the last two decades has brought to light in really old Paleolithic and Neolithic settlements.

Regarding the number of oldest human skeletal finds, i.e., from the Paleolithic, it should be noted that in relation to the large number of known settlements from this period (more than 300) it is an extremely small one. Very often it has also been shown that finds of human bones in Paleolithic layers did not belong to them at all, because only much later a younger settler was buried here and came to lie in the excavated old cultural layers. Thus one also encountered in the Schweizersbild near Schaffhausen in the Paleolithic cultural layers Neolithic remains of humans (pygmies). In the scientifically exact lifting of human skeletons, therefore, the greatest caution must always be exercised and primarily the undisturbedness or disturbedness of the find layer must be established beyond doubt.

Of Paleolithic human finds in caves, under rock shelters, etc., as said, only little more than a dozen have become known so far. We recall the finds from Neandertal, from Spy (Belgium), Krapina (Croatia), Heidelberg, Le Moustier, La Chapelle-aux-Saints, La Ferrassie, La Quina (the latter four in the Dordogne in southwestern France), Gibraltar, Ehringsdorf near Weimar; Combe capelle (Dordogne), Galley-Hill (England), Brünn (Moravia), Chancelade, Cro Magnon (both in the Dordogne), Predmost (Moravia), Mentone. One has often wondered why the great majority of cave settlements harbor no human remains, since the bone material of man can preserve itself as well as that of hunting animals. But the matter can be easily explained.

When a cave was a human dwelling place for a long time, it could hardly have served as a burial place. Illness and death have belonged from time immemorial to the most mysterious puzzles for man. The fear of death, the dead and evil spirits we still find in pronounced form among today’s natural peoples.120 The so-called “crouched position” in buried dead has, as Richard Andrée rightly emphasizes, no other reason than to prevent the free movement and “return” of the dead. Many peculiar customs, like the ancient fettering of the body of the dead, the binding of the arms and legs of the deceased have been preserved even into the present time (Saxon Vogtland). The mounds and gravestones over the buried dead also belong to this old circle of ideas.121

Considerations for one’s own health and fear of the dead (which also still plays a mighty role among civilized peoples today) kept the cave dweller from burying the dead in his own dwelling. Rather, more distant places (burial caves!) were chosen for this purpose, or the dead were buried in the open country, where the decomposition of the body proceeded more rapidly. In some cave finds of Paleolithic humans one claims to have observed that over the find layer of the skeleton lay a layer empty of human tools (“sterile”). This would suggest that the cave was quickly abandoned for a long time after the burial of the tribal member. A later incoming human group, however, had no idea of what was hidden under the cave floor and settled there.

If we consider the two Paleolithic dwelling sites of the Wildkirchli and the Drachenloch with regard to the just said for their suitability as burial caves, the explanation for the fact that neither from the one nor from the other prehistoric settlement could any finds of human bones or skeletons be found so far results automatically. Both bear the character of pronounced dwelling caves in which the settlers, for good reasons, did not want to establish burial sites. Only an accident (ceiling collapse) or then immediate departure of living man after a burial performed on a tribal companion could under circumstances have preserved skeletal parts of man for us at both places. A conclusive judgment is not yet permitted today, since larger complexes of cave fillings have not yet been worked on. We content ourselves therefore for once with what the Paleolithic man has left us of other certain witnesses of his former activity in the Wildkirchli and in the Drachenloch!

If one finally poses the question of which older human race the settler of the Drachenloch might have belonged to, the answer, as in the Wildkirchli, by analogy of similar find sites, is that it can hardly have been a different type than the known primitive Neandertal race. There are no absolutely certain proofs for this, since any real bone finds of man are lacking to date. A single find of a skull -– the most ardent wish of my faithful collaborator in the Drachenloch -– would immediately answer the important question.


If we raise the question at the end of this section of which Paleolithic cultural stage we are justified in assigning the Drachenloch to, the agreement with the results from the Wildkirchli can be named first, with the single exception of the absence of quartzitic stone tool inventory. Yet the latter finds its replacement in the similar primitive forms of the Seewer limestone artifacts. Fauna and bone tools show clear parallels, even if in the Drachenloch alongside Ursus spelaeus his later cousin Ursus arctos subfossilis also appears and in the Wildkirchli the cave lion and cave panther appear instead. Characteristic for both caves is the absence of the common brown bear.

But we stand in the Drachenloch as in the Wildkirchli before the same fact of a primitive cultural stage that we cannot place with all effort into either a pre- or post-Mousterian time. -– Of a so-called classical Mousterian there can be no talk here. Even less will attempts succeed in assuming a retardation of fauna and cultural stages in the Drachenloch in order to give it as young an age as possible.122

That we are dealing in the Drachenloch with an evidently Paleolithic settlement of man will find no serious opponents.

According to the experiences made in the Wildkirchli as well as in the Drachenloch and after examination of a large find material, I would like to give expression at this place to a thought that comes to me again and again when I compare the two alpine prehistoric settlements with those of the lowlands. Are there, so I ask, not just as with the sediments of the mountains also facies in the cultural horizons of prehistory? Can we presuppose of a prehistoric population, a small hunting horde that perhaps lived for centuries in world-remote mountain solitude, that it remained true in strict conservatism to the conventional forms of tools and customs, or will it not much rather have adhered to the necessity that nature and life circumstances offered it? Cannot values of the same wear away with long duration of closed cultural circles, things fall into oblivion that were otherwise the property of an extensive epoch in human history? Weighty reasons lead me more and more to the conviction that we have to reckon in the Wildkirchli as in the Drachenloch with a peculiar cultural deviation (cultural facies) that stands in no relationships with the Aurignacian nor with the Micoque-Kösten special type, but which also does not want to be classified completely into the remaining Paleolithic system known to date. Do we come in the end to having to recognize a special alpine Paleolithic as a special stage (special culture) of the Paleolithic with the approach to the Mousterian period? By raising this question here publicly for the first time and bringing it into serious scientific discussion, I leave it to further research in alpine caves to gradually bring full light to this important matter as well.123

Or do we finally find the riddle’s solution in a thorough revision and reorganization of the so-called Mousterian stage of the Paleolithic? To go into the latter question more closely is the task of a special treatise that I will publish later. I content myself here with the reference that the Mousterian stage, as well as the Jung-Acheulean preceding it and the so-called Primitive Mousterian still show many open gaps, which however can never be filled with the Hauserian Micoquian.

So much results from the depicted facts that we encountered in the Drachenloch, that we are placed by them before completely new, previously unsuspected questions, and from them new, important insights are gained for the entire prehistoric science. They also relate to a significant widening of the prehistoric horizon, whose boundaries can never be staked out by schematic “systems.” Infinitely manifold are the effects of the human spirit when it comes to the preservation of life and success in the struggle for existence. Necessity and compulsion to persist in it are the eternally driving, creating factors that provide the impulse from cultural phase to cultural phase.

It may be granted to future research, especially that in alpine caves, to carry further building stones to the peculiar foundation of new insights from the Wildkirchli and the Drachenloch. It would be more than premature to erect imaginative buildings, as such have already arisen in the young science of prehistory. -– I repeat here what I have said elsewhere124: “For the prehistorian of the present moment, the main task consists in my opinion in working his find sites according to all rules of today’s excavation technique and methodology. In the sense that even a later time with advanced knowledge is able to recreate a completely clear picture of the former find facts. On the basis of a whole series of local works of such kind, it will be possible to weave the guiding threads into a consolidated whole. We work indeed ‘only for our time’; in a certain direction, however -– precisely in the exact description of facts -– our research should under all circumstances possess a certain maturity.”

One can, if one wants, today designate the Drachenloch like the Wildkirchli as “an unsolved riddle.” Let us rejoice in this, when more and more such riddles arise for the searching human spirit, since they always provide the mighty impulse to unstoppable, serious research guided by the spirit of truth!

XI. The Geological Age of the Drachenloch Settlement.

Far more difficult than the question of the affiliation of the Drachenloch cultural site to one of the various “classical” stages of the Paleolithic is that concerning its geological age. If already the Wildkirchli caused no small difficulties for precise classification into the Ice Age schema, then the conditions in the Drachenloch become even more complicated. Let us not forget that the battle over the number of ice ages still rages and therefore absolute certainty in the classification of an older Paleolithic settlement is not given. Even here, quite a lot of knowledge is still necessary. It will become all the more consolidated and clarified the more research facts are added. For science and research know no standstill.

According to fauna and primitive tool technology, we cannot possibly place the Drachenloch temporally in the Hallstatt or Bronze Age or in the younger or older Neolithic. As has already been emphasized, it also has no place in the younger Paleolithic stages, such as in the Magdalenian, Solutrean or Aurignacian. The Drachenloch belongs deeper down. Admittedly, it is also younger than the first Paleolithic stages, the Chellean and Acheulean. We have therefore assigned it the position where the Mousterian stands in the international schema, but reserve corrections here in the sense of what was said in the previous section.

Since according to this the Drachenloch (like the Wildkirchli) can only be connected with Ice Age phenomena, only three questions come into consideration: Is the Drachenloch, i.e. its settlement, post-glacial, glacial, i.e. falling into a high ice age, or interglacial?125

Let us first pursue the thought whether a settlement of this cave during one of the ice ages (most likely the last—the Würm ice age comes into consideration) would have been possible! During the Drachenloch research I paid as much attention to the Ice Age phenomena in the area as seemed necessary to me for a preliminary orientation. In particular, I sought to establish the altitude limits of the former high glaciations, which was possible during our ascents to the Gelbbergalp. There are mainly the traces of the former Rhine glacier, which moved in a side arm over the Kunkelspass through the valley of Kunkels-Vättis and the Taminatal to Pfäfers-Ragaz. Since the valley slopes of Vättis northward on both sides are very steep (Gelbberg, Vättnerälpli, Vättnerberg, Vindels down to the valley floor), the deposits of moraines and erratic blocks along the slopes are extremely sparse, because they slid into the depths when the glacier melted, to which also that from the Calfeisentale (Tamina glacier) joined.

Now we find on both sides of the mentioned valley slopes sometimes smaller, sometimes larger valley floors, which Albert Heim126 and Piperoff127 have already determined more precisely. I refer here explicitly to the presentations available there for the sake of brevity and limit myself to the observations I made during the ascent to the Gelbberg hut (south of the Kreuzbachtobel).

On the so-called Patina, a small forest meadow at 1500 m, we encounter a significant scattering of blocks of Grisons rocks, of which individual ones (especially Verrucano) measure over a cubic meter. We encounter the same phenomenon again on the so-called “Chrächerli,” also a light forest spot, somewhat below the closed forest line, at 1720 m and at the latter itself. At the “Brunnenhüttli,” where we step out into the open dwarf pine region, there are still quite a number, but mostly only smaller (up to 30 cm diameter) Grisons erratics to be found. The narrow terrain channel up to the Gelbberg hut now gives us the opportunity to establish the uppermost limit of the erratic phenomenon up to around 1900 m altitude,128 i.e. about 60 m lower than today’s upper dwarf pine limit, or 20 m higher than the last individual stems of the larch.—On the southerly located Kreuzboden (1940) all traces of foreign rocks disappear. From this it follows that the actual Gelbberg terrace (hut at 2070 m) remained untouched by glaciers during all glacier high stands.—The scattering of erratic rocks listed by Piperoff (loc. cit. p. 42) on the Alp Salaz (1790 m) at the Calanda thus remains a full 110 m below the erratics observed by me at the Gelbberg. According to the altitude positions of the terraces northeast of the Gelbberg terrace of the Vättnerälpli (at the outermost end 1800 m), the Vättnerberg (1614—1500 m) and Vindels (1650—1540 m), erratic glacier relics must therefore also be demonstrable there.

With a high glaciation in the area up to 1900 m, the Drachenberg with the Drachenloch, as well as the Vättnerkopf, lay high above the ice. Probably a smaller hanging glacier also extended from the “Täli” between the latter and the Drachenberg, which spread onto the Gelbberg terrace and probably produced the magnificent karren formations in the Valangian at the Gelbberg hut during slow melting.

According to the facts presented, habitation of the Drachenloch during any high ice age is not to be thought of—any more than in the Wildkirchli—since it would not be understandable how such a rich fauna could have maintained itself on this cliff in the ice (nunatak). It is furthermore to be assumed that during a high ice age the Drachenberg bore a proper firn cap and the cave itself was probably filled with ice.

Let us now try to consider a post-glacial age for the Drachenloch settlement. Here we encounter truly insurmountable difficulties. We know that the two Schaffhausen cultural sites Kesslerloch and Schweizersbild, like the entire Magdalenian, are under all circumstances of post-glacial age, i.e. belong to the Achen and Bühl stages (according to Prof. A. Penck). Thus the much older Drachenloch, which indeed has no echoes of the youngest stage of the Old Stone Age (Magdalenian) and knows no arctic-alpine fauna, cannot belong to these post-glacial stages of glaciation. But to make the Drachenloch even younger than the Paleolithic would overturn every framework of previous classifications.—For at the time of the Bühl stage, i.e. the last major glacier advance in the post-glacial period, which we have before us in the so-called “Bühl” near Vättis (970 m), the snow line according to A. Penck still lay at 1450—1500 m, thus almost down to the Patina. Above it the development of a flora and fauna as at the time of the Drachenloch settlement would have been quite impossible, likewise also in the Laufen oscillation placed by A. Penck before the Achen stage.

If we consider together all the find circumstances in the Drachenloch, as well as the Ice Age conditions in the Tamina-Calfeisentale, then no other interpretation remains possible for the geological age of the Drachenloch settlement than that it belongs to an interglacial period and specifically to the Riss-Würm interglacial,129 i.e. the ice-free section between the two last ice ages. During this interglacial period the ice retreat of the great Riss glacier in the Calfeisentale had taken place to its most remote corners. Indeed, according to A. Penck the ice masses might have retreated even considerably higher than at today’s snow line in the Sardona area (ca. 2400 m), at which the Drachenberg with 2635 m and its neighbors, indeed even the Piz Sol with 2847 m and the Calanda with 2808 m become snow-free in summer. We may therefore, without going far wrong, draw the conclusion that the snow line during the interglacial periods lay essentially higher than today, just as well as the tree line, which demonstrably at the Gelbberg itself still reached close to the height of the hut even in historical times. The finds of charcoal remains in the fireplaces of the Drachenloch inhabitant are incidentally also an indication of the former proximity of the timber line. According to everything said, we must also assume the climatic conditions of that time as at least such as they are today in the area. Very probably, however, they were still considerably more pleasant and favorable than the present ones.

So much emerges from the wealth of faunistic remains in the Drachenloch that the living and life conditions for humans must have been advantageous, indeed very favorable. From the find layers one can conclude a longer habitation of this site by humans, which admittedly was probably only a summer hunting station and also otherwise remained unvisited by humans at times. Indeed, according to all appearances even different hordes may have taken possession of it at wide temporal intervals, but their tool stage belongs to one and the same unified primitive cultural stage. The whole forms a picture to which no later cultural stages follow up here above.

XII. General Considerations.

If one surveys the present topographical situation of the area of Vättis and the Drachenberg, then for everyone the question comes to the foreground: How did the people of that time get up there at all and to the cave? Was not already for him, who was indeed a roaming hunter, and whom neither heights nor wide distances frightened, the ascent to the Drachenloch too arduous?—But let us consider for a moment from an airplane, as our Fig. 27 shows, the valley landscape of the Taminatal from north to south together with the terraces gleaming in fresh snow (Vindels, Vättnerberg at the foot of Monte Luna [right], Vättnerälpli [at the Vättnerkopf], Gelbberg [at the Drachenberg, of which above the ribbed ridge is still visible, directly behind the peak of the Vättnerkopf]). Let us transport ourselves for a moment back to the last interglacial period: The valley floor of the Tamina lying several hundred meters higher,130 the deep incisions on the mountain flanks of Monte Luna, at the Vättnerkopf and Drachenberg (Mühletobel, Radeintobel, Kreuzbachtobel), filled in, leveled and the mentioned terraces connected. Then it was easy to get from the village of Pfäfers131 or from Valens over the magnificent lower valley floors of Vasön up to Vindels, Vättnerberg, Vättnerälpli (Ladils) and Gelbberg. From there it was a joy for the big game hunter to ascend to the secure cave hoard, which winked at him so promisingly from the heights.

Here in this game-rich area he chooses his sphere of activity. The hunt for cave bears, especially for the younger animals, has become second nature to him through long practice. Armed with sharp senses, he must replace through cunning what he lacks in physical strength and far-reaching, reliable arrow, metal and fire weapons. The terrain with its wide dwarf pine thickets and natural rock pits is made for driving in and catching game in concealed pitfalls.132 Now and then it means the fight for life and death with the grim, terribly strong opponent. But when victory is won, the game killed, then he takes it with strong arms and carries it up the slope to the secure shelter. Often the prey is already divided below and only the best, the mighty bear paws, the thighs, a piece from the “high back” and the hide (as clothing) are taken along. The head is loaded as a trophy and sacrificed to the protective god of the hunt, the good spirit of preservation and nourishment of man. The dark nights and the gloomy days that he must spend in his rock dwelling are illuminated by the hearth’s crackling and soon again gently glowing fire, which is at the same time a defensive means against dangerous predators.—How long might he have practiced his hunting craft up here?———

But once the glacier masses slowly growing and rising to the heights in the rear valley announced to him the day when he too had to bid farewell to his magnificent elevated seat, yielding to the glacier and the cold, which gradually also drove his game animals to the land outside. Where he has turned, this oldest settler of our high mountains? No one knows!—For millennia it has become quiet again from the hunting cry at the Drachenberg above.———

No primeval man’s fleeting foot has during the still following glacier period (Würm ice age) and the retreat stages of the last glacier ice stepped on valley and heights of this area anymore. The lake dweller (Neolithic) following the Old Stone Age man developed peacefully in his hut built on piles in the lake bottom into a sedentary person. Agriculture, animal husbandry, weaving and pottery relieved him of the laboriously dangerous hunt for wild animals in mountain heights and of primitive life in caves. A wide span of time separates the big game hunter from the Drachenloch from that person who in the rich utilization of metals (bronze and iron) climbed to an admirable degree of material culture.

Millennia have rushed over mankind. Humans and peoples have come and gone. Of the rise and decline of cultures, of human welfare and human woe the spade work of the prehistorian reports to us like the stylus of the historian.

Alongside the purely material processing of prehistoric find sites, however, questions of human-spiritual nature constantly move us:

What is the origin, goal and destiny, task and responsibility of man? Can one recognize in him, as in external life formation, in the production of tools, clothing, dwelling etc. also in the spiritual, moral-ethical field a continuous or sudden progress on the path of development, of evolution to the higher? Are cultures circles that go back into themselves and therefore completely perish? Or is development bound to the wave line (like all movement, all cosmic happening), which have heights and depths of cultures (the latter as a result of relapses into raw-material life), whose height points however with progressing development ultimately still mean a “higher”? Will the general-human being, which eternally oscillates between the preservation of the species and the individual, always be the same, or is there above it a realm into which until today only chosen ones of mankind have entered?

May we hope for a time—even if we ourselves no longer experience it—where true humanity and human happiness are synonymous with the “harmonious living out of individuality, the free, constant perfection of personality,” in the appreciation of one’s own life and that of our neighbor, in mutual promotion and help, where faith in the good means the redemption of the human race?—To believe in the development of man, that is humanization on the way to full humanity, to the “Civitas humana.”

Concluding Word

The Wildkirchli in the Säntis mountains, as well as the prehistoric settlement in the cave of Cotencher in the canton of Neuchâtel were until the year 1917 the only two prehistoric cultural sites from the older section of the Old Stone Age (Old Paleolithic) of Switzerland. According to geological age they belong to the time of that mighty phenomenon of the glaciation of Europe, i.e. to a climatically favorable interglacial period located between two ice ages. Kesslerloch and Schweizersbild and other long-known find sites (see page 2 and 3) are later, prehistoric settlements belonging to the end of the last ice age.

With the discovery of the Drachenloch finds (1917) the third oldest settlement site in Switzerland has now become known, which according to age connects to the Wildkirchli and to Cotencher. With this the canton of St. Gallen has also advanced into the series of older Old Stone Age settlements and indeed with a find site that will probably be considered for a long time as the highest situated on our continent.

Previously in the canton of St. Gallen from the entire long period of the Stone Age only two small Neolithic land settlements were known, namely in the rock gorge of the Hirschensprung (between Oberriet and Rüti) and on the Molasse hill ridge situated west of the village of Heerbrugg.

The newly discovered St. Gallen Drachenloch worthily and uniquely in its kind joins the Appenzell Inner-Rhodes Wildkirchli, whose significance is generally recognized, but which is now surpassed with regard to altitude by 1000 m.—In a surprising way the agreement of the two settlements with regard to their cultural stage and their geological age has been proven through the research in the Drachenloch. The results from one and the other site are mutual confirmations and supplements, as they could hardly be thought better.

Wildkirchli and Drachenloch point with certainty to the fact that between and beside them still more oldest human settlements must be present.—The task of the coming systematic research within the alpine and the remaining area of eastern Switzerland is to follow the traces of the same and to unite the individual pictures into a closed prehistoric cultural circle.

The state of research in the Drachenloch, which already shows a unified factual picture, justifies today a first larger publication about the same. It is the forerunner of the purely scientific treatise, which will deal more with the individual description of the finds and with the diluvial geological age questions. Nevertheless, the find facts listed in the present writing are already of great significance for the specialist in prehistory and sufficient for a general orientation.

The Drachenloch research falls into the most difficult time situation that mankind has ever experienced. With all the greater thanks may we remember the vigorous promotion that our research has experienced from the side of the municipal administrative council of the city of St. Gallen and some private individuals. It is eloquent testimony that the sense for science, which probably finds its most beautiful expression in the exploration of native nature and history, has not yet been lost among us.

The present writing owes its printing primarily to the lively interest that the St. Gallen Natural Science Society and especially its president, Mr. Dr. H. Rehsteiner, have devoted to the Drachenloch research from the beginning. It is to be attributed to the financial support of the municipal administrative council and that of Mr. Arnold Mettler-Specker in St. Gallen that the writing could be provided with fine equipment with numerous pictures.

Besides the authorities already named on page 10 of this writing, I thank here for the friendly accommodation of the cantonal St. Gallen Military Department (Chief: Mr. Landammann Dr. A. Maechler) for the loan of a number of military wool blankets for our otherwise rather primitive night camp in the Gelbberg alpine hut.

The most heartfelt thanks belong above all to my friend Dr. H. Rehsteiner for the lively support in the settlement of the manuscript created in relatively short time and for the kind assistance in the correction of the printed sheets.

The pictures attached to the writing originate from the photographic recordings of Messrs. Flying Officer Lieutenant Walter Mittelholzer of the Ad-Astra-Aero-Society in Zurich, Max Albert in St. Gallen and Fr. Schmidt in Ragaz. The clichés were created with special care by the well-known zincography firm M. John in St. Gallen according to the author’s instructions.

It is to be expected that the results from the Drachenloch research will give occasion for lively discussion in the circles of prehistory researchers. The greatest satisfaction for the author of this writing consists, however, in the fact that through a vigorous tackling of further caves in favorable locations of our magnificent Alpine mountains, as many documents as possible will be brought together for more thorough knowledge of the very oldest settlement of our dear fatherland.

Explanation of the Illustrations.

Fig. 1. Mountain village Vättis with view into the Calfeisentale. To page 13. In the foreground above the village the magnificent old river terrace. To the left the eastern extension of the Ringelkette (Simel, Orgeln). To the right: foot and wooded southeastern slope of the Gelbberg-Drachenberg. Of the actual Drachenberg only the lowest rock terraces are visible. Left next to the Drachenberg the mighty rock structure of the Gigerwaldspitz (with small peak). In the background of the Calfeisentale (in completely clear weather): the Piz Sardona.

Fig. 2. Eastern slope of the Gelbberg-Drachenberg toward the Taminatal. To pages 15 and 16. Below the valley floor (road Pfäfers-Vättis), near the village Vättis. In the middle of the wooded slope the Kreuzbachtobel hidden in the black gorge; to its left, hidden in the forest, the ascent to the Gelbbergalp and to the Drachenberg. At the top the Drachenberg, in its rock wall the Drachenloch (black point). To the right a part of the Vättnerkopf. Fresh snow cover October 1917.

Fig. 3. Southeastern slope of the Drachenberg toward the Calfeisen- and Kunkelsertal. To pages 15 and 16. Below meadow terrace Mattlina near Vättis. Entrance to the Calfeisentale. At the top in the dragon heads the Drachenloch (black point). Right above the Gelbbergalp. Fresh snow cover October 1917.

Fig. 4. Gelbbergalp with Gelbberg huts on old karren field. To page 18. In the background left the Panärahörner, right the Ringelspitze with the Ringelgletscher, right next to the new alpine hut the grassy southeastern slope of the Drachenberg.

Fig. 5. Gelbbergalp with the front (southern) and rear (northern) Drachenberg. In the rock wall of the front Drachenberg the Drachenloch cave. Under the rear Drachenberg the lower part of the so-called “Täli.” To page 18. Fig. 5 is connected panoramically to:

Fig. 6. Gelbbergalp with the two alpine huts (old and new) and the Vättnerkopf (“Aelplikopf”). To page 18. On the mighty, broadly spreading flysch mantle of the Vättnerkopf sits the grotesque Jurassic-Cretaceous block of the Drachenberg overthrust. At the foot of the Jurassic (Malm) wall there are numerous cave-like rock shelters. To the left of the Vättnerkopf the uppermost part of the so-called “Täli” and transition to the rear Drachenberg. Between the Gelbberg terrace and the Vättnerkopf lies the beginning of the Kreuzbachtobel.

Fig. 7. Gelbbergalp huts, eastern slope of the Drachenberg and in the uppermost rock wall the cave of the Drachenloch. (D). To pages 19 and 20. One should compare to this the geological profile (Fig. 14). The new shepherd’s hut serves for our accommodation. On the picture the ascent to the Drachenloch is marked with dots.

Fig. 8. West side of the Drachenberg, taken from the Gigerwaldspitz. To page 33 footnote 2 and page 56. In the foreground the Tersol gorge. Wonderfully the dragon head with its Jurassic (Malm) Cretaceous rock (Oehrlikalk, Valangian, Kieselkalk, Drusbergschichten, Schrattenkalk, Gault = black, curved line, Seewerkalk) stands out from the mighty, more gently sloped flysch pedestal.—Right in the background the Calanda (highest peak).

Fig. 9. Drachenloch cave. View of the cave entrance. To pages 19 and 20. The light rock layers under the cave entrance are Schrattenkalk, the broader, darker band next to and under the entrance gate = Gault and the entire rock wall next to and above the cave = Seewerkalk. Above the cave portal one sees the slightly curved rock fissure, on whose course inside the mountain the cave lies. In front at the entrance the find-sorting table.

Fig. 10. Longitudinal section, floor plan and cross-sections of the Drachenloch cave. To pages 33—38 and 72 ff. Scale 1:300. In the longitudinal section the longitudinal excavation profile in caves II and III, as well as that in cave I is entered. In the floor plan the excavated areas are marked with dashes (1921). The floor of the cupola structure (K) in cave I and the cave parts IV, V and VI are not yet excavated.

Fig. 11. Interior view of cave I. To pages 34 ff. Right in the foreground the wooden trough, whose cave drip water serves to feed the acetylene lamps. In the background right the cupola structure with natural hollowing. Left, where the white arrow is drawn, is located the entrance to the rear cave parts (II—VI) that was still unexcavated at the time of the photographic recording.

Fig. 12. View from the foremost part of the Drachenloch cave (toward the east). To page 34. Below the Gelbbergalp with the two huts. Still deeper the Taminatal. The middle section is a part of the northern extension of the Calanda. In the background the Prätigau and the Silvretta massif. Left next to the Gelbbergalp the Kreuzbachtobel.

Fig. 13. Geological profile through the Calfeisentale. To pages 47 ff. The left valley side is compiled according to the backdrop profiles of Dr. M. Blumental. To show the entire layer sequence, next to the Panära and Orgeln fold, the valley floor of Vättis is also drawn into the profile. The Drachenberg overthrust connects in this profile to the Panära fold. Dr. J. Oberholzer, Glarus, brings according to his newest investigations the Drachenberg overthrust in connection with the deeper lying Orgeln fold. To complete the entire geological situation also the highest situated Glarus Verrucano cover is still drawn in two small partial pieces (Ringelspitz and Piz Sol), whereby the Piz Sol section must be thought shifted further north.

Fig. 14. Geological profile through the Drachenberg. To pages 51 ff. According to own surveys. Compare to this Figs. 5 and 7. The heavily dotted line (D.-Ue.) indicates the Drachenberg overthrust over the autochthonous mountain. The heavily drawn black line is the Gault of the autochthonous and the overthrust Cretaceous.

Fig. 15. Drawn excavation profile (cross-section) from the passage of cave II to III. To this the explanation of the excavation layers I—VI on pages 77—81. The coal hearth (K) and the skull pit (Sch) = stone cist are intentionally drawn strongly.—Pl = artificially, i.e. stone slabs laid by the cave man.

Fig. 16. Photographic recording of an excavation profile from cave II. Layers III and IV stand out sharply from each other in the picture. In the IV layer a cave bear skull just comes to light, whose rear end still sticks in the earth. For clarity the skull edge has been drawn in. This is the cave bear skull later sawed lengthwise, whose interior remained so well preserved. See Fig. 18 below.

Fig. 17. Largest skull of a cave bear from the Drachenloch. To page 95. See the measurements there. Best preserved piece that needs no reconstruction. Scale: 1:3.4.133

Fig. 18. Longitudinal sections through the skulls of a common brown bear (Ursus arctos L.) from Russia (1903) and a cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) from the Drachenloch. Placed opposite each other for comparison. Text page 98. Note the wonderful preservation of the interior parts of the cave bear skull (cerebrum, cerebellum cavity, cavum nasi, the olfactory conchae and the olfactory bulb, as well as the frontal sinuses. If one compares the cerebrum cavity of the two bear species, it results that the cerebrum in the cave bear is relatively smaller than that of the ordinary brown bear. Scale: 1:3.2.

Fig. 19. Skull of Ursus arctos subfossilis Midd. From the Drachenloch. (Without lower jaw). To page 99. Adult individual. Flat forehead. Snout part to skull part = 1:1. The molars lying between the rearmost molar and the canine are partially broken off. Scale: 1:2.6.

Fig. 20. Used bones = bone tools of the Drachenloch man. To page 115. All pieces from cave bears. Fragments of limb (extremity) bones. The fracture edges are visibly worn. In individual pieces the spongy bone mass (spongiosa) is still well preserved because wear was not possible there. The uppermost piece is completely smoothed. They are so-called hide smoothers. Scale: 1:1.7.

Fig. 21. Bone tools of the Drachenloch man. Fibula fragments. To page 116. One joint end of the fibula is completely preserved. The fracture ends show the familiar “flute beak fracture” (oblique transverse fracture). They are worn, smoothed and polished through longer use in human hands. They served as hide removers. Scale: 1:1.45.

Fig. 22. Bone fragments etc. of the cave bear. To page 117. The flute beak fractures are partly still sharp-edged and not worn. The pieces lay with those of Fig. 21. They are bone fragments first prepared for tools (hide removers). The broad bone has impact traces that originate from humans. The long narrow piece next to it is an os penis of the cave bear, which was gladly used as a tool. Scale: 1:1.6.

Fig. 23. Point-like bone instruments of the Drachenloch man. To page 117. Of the masses of such used bone splinters only a few are depicted here. Their use in human hands is easily demonstrable. An excellently polished and laterally (upper left) ground piece is No. 5 in the upper row. Scale: 1:1.4.

Fig. 24. Broken hip joint bones of the cave bear with worn joint socket rim. To page 118. Of the several hundred finds of this type the most conspicuous are reproduced here in the picture. Note the broad rim of the joint socket in the part of the bone fragment directed to the left. Scale: 1:2.5.

Fig. 25. Broken lower jaws of the cave bear, with preserved, broken off or completely missing canine. The lowest jaw fragment in the first vertical row stems from an old cave bear; it shows clear traces of wear. To page 120. Scale: 1:2.4.

Fig. 26. Stone tools of the Drachenloch man. To pages 124 ff. All Seewerkalk pieces in point and scraper form. Natural size of the middle large piece: 8.5:4.8 cm. Actual edge notches through blow or pressure are missing. Only use traces are present. Scale: 1:1.8.

Fig. 27. Terrace landscape in the Taminatal. To page 135. Aerial photograph by First Lieutenant W. Mittelholzer. The airplane flies from Pfäfers into the Taminatal. In the deepest part behind the little village Vättis (magnifying glass!), left the Calanda (C), right Monte Luna (M), Vättnerkopf (V) and Drachenberg (D), under the same the snow-covered rock terraces Vindels, Vättnerberg, Vättnerälpli-Ladils and Gelbberg: the former easy approaches in prehistoric times to the Gelbberg terrace and into the Drachenloch. In the background the Ringelspitze (R).

Fig. 28. Vättnerkopf (center) and dragon head (↓) left of the Vättnerkopf. Aerial photograph by First Lieutenant W. Mittelholzer. (October 1921). Under the two mountains the rock terraces of Ladils and Gelbberg. (X) Right of the Vättnerkopf the Alp Calvina with the Calvina-Radeinbach. Upper right the peak of Piz Sol. In the center of the background the Satzmartinshorn, below it the Tersoltal. Left in the background: view into the rear Calfeisentale with the Sardona mountains.

Footnotes

  1. Alb. Heim: Ueber einen neuen Fund aus der Rentierzeit in der Schweiz. Mitteil. d. Antiquar. Gesellschaft Zürich. 1874.

    K. Merck: Der Höhlenfund im Kesslerloch bei Thayngen. Originalbericht des Entdeckers. Mitt. der Antiquar. Gesellschaft Zürich. 1875. XIX. Bd.

    J. Nüesch: Das Kesslerloch, eine Höhle aus paläolithischer Zeit. Neue Grabungen und Funde. Neue Denkschriften der Schweiz. Naturforsch. Gesellschaft. Bd. XXXIX, 2. Hälfte. 1904.

    -– -– Das Kesslerloch bei Thayngen. Vergleichende Studie (Neue Grabungen u. Funde, II. Mitt.). Anzeiger f. Schweiz. Altertumskunde Nr. 4 (1904/05). 

  2. J. Nüesch: Das Schweizersbild, eine Niederlassung aus paläolithischer Zeit. Neue Denkschriften d. Schw. Naturf. Ges. Bd. XXXV. 2. Aufl. 1902.

    Concerning Kesslerloch and Schweizersbild compare also the annual reports I-IX of the Swiss Society for Prehistory. Furthermore:

    J. Meister: Neuere Beobachtungen aus den glacialen und postglacialen Bildungen um Schaffhausen. Beil. z. Jahresb. d. Gymnasiums Schaffhausen. 1897/98.

    Die Eiszeit und ältere Steinzeit. Festschrift des Kts. Schaffhausen zur Bundesfeier 10. Aug. 1901. Likewise J. Heierli: Urgeschichte der Schweiz (1901). A. Schenk: La Suisse préhistorique (1912). Penck u. Brückner: Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter (1909). 

  3. K. Classen: Die Völker Europas zur jüngern Steinzeit. Studien und Forschungen zur Menschen- u. Völkerkunde. X. Stuttgart. Strecker & Schröder. 1912.

    F. Schwerz: Die Völkerschaften der Schweiz von der Urzeit bis zur Gegenwart. Gleiche Sammlung. Bd. XIII. Stuttgart. Strecker & Schröder. 1915. 

  4. J. Heierli: Urgeschichte der Schweiz. Zürich 1901.

    A. Schenk: La Suisse préhistorique. Lausanne 1912.

    O. Tschumi u. P. Vouga: Einführung in die Vorgeschichte der Schweiz. Bern, A. Francke. 1912.

    Th. Ischer: Die Chronologie des Neolithikums der Pfahlbauten der Schweiz. Bern. E. Bircher. 1919. 

  5. Gabriel de Mortillet. Le Préhistorique. I. Aufl. 1883. II. Aufl. 1885. III. Aufl. 1900. Paris. Schleicher frères, éditeurs. 

  6. E. Bächler: Die Stellung der Geologie zur heutigen paläolithischen Höhlenforschung. Heim-Festschrift. Vierteljahrschrift d. Naturf. Gesellsch. Zürich. LXIV. (1919). 

  7. W. Soergel: Lösse, Eiszeiten u. paläolithische Kulturen. Jena. G. Fischer. 1919. 

  8. Fritz Sarasin, H. G. Stehlin u. Th. Studer: Die steinzeitlichen Stationen des Birstales zwischen Basel und Delsberg. Neue Denkschriften der Schweiz. Naturforsch. Ges. Bd. LIV. Abh. 2. 1918. 

  9. G. de Mortillet: Le préhistorique suisse, in Revue mensuelle de l’école d’Anthropologie de Paris, huitième année V, 15 Mai 1898, S. 137 u. ff. 

  10. M. Hoernes: Der diluviale Mensch in Europa, die Kulturstufen der ältern Steinzeit. Braunschweig. Vieweg & Sohn. 1903. 

  11. Concerning the Magdalenian from Kesslerloch and Schweizersbild and its age, Penck speaks in Vol. II, p. 422 ff., about the younger Stone and Bronze Age in Vol. II, p. 440, likewise p. 638 about the Birs valley stations, the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. Page 701-716 he gives a compilation of the distribution of Paleolithic finds, p. 743, Vol. III, one about the Paleolithic stations in the area of the Rhodanic glacier and a summary of the chronology of the Ice Age and prehistoric conditions, as well as a special concluding chapter about the Wildkirchli on p. 1169-1176. 

  12. Emil Bächler: Die prähistorische Kulturstätte in der Wildkirchli-Ebenalphöhle. Berichte über die öffentlichen Sammlungen der Stadt St. Gallen. 1905/06. -– -– Die prähistorische Kulturstätte in der Wildkirchli-Ebenalphöhle. Verhandlungen der Schweiz. Naturforsch. Gesellschaft in St. Gallen. 1906. Résumé zum Vortrag: Die prähistorische Kulturstätte in der Ebenalp-Wildkirchlihöhle. Bericht über die Prähistoriker-Versammlung in Köln. 1907. -– -– Die Wildkirchlihöhlen bei Schwendi (Appenzell I. Rh.). Originalbericht im ersten Jahresbericht der Schweiz. Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte (Société suisse de Préhistoire). 1909. -– -– Das Wildkirchli, die älteste prähistorische Kulturstation der Schweiz und ihre Beziehungen zu den altsteinzeitlichen Niederlassungen des Menschen in Europa. Schriften des Vereins für Geschichte des Bodensees und seiner Umgebung. Heft XLI. 1912. -– -– Das Wildkirchli, eine allgemeinverständliche Monographie. (Encompasses everything worth knowing that relates to this site). In manuscript finished and ready. Will appear in print as soon as printing and production costs take on a more favorable form. Concerning the Wildkirchli compare also: Penck u. Brückner: Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter. Vol. III. p. 1173-1176. Schenk: La Suisse préhistorique 1912, p. 96-101. H. Obermaier: Das geolog. Alter des Menschengeschlechtes. Mitt. d. Geolog. Gesellsch. Wien. III. 1898. p. 290-322. H. Obermaier: Les formations glaciaires des alpes et l’homme paléolithique. Paris. L’Anthropologie T. XX. 1909. p. 497-522. H. Obermaier: Der Mensch der Vorzeit. Vol. I. Der Mensch aller Zeiten. Allgemeine Verlagsgesellschaft München. 1912. p. 161 u. ff. R. Forrer: Reallexikon der prähistorischen, klassischen u. frühchristlichen Altertümer. Berlin. Spemann. 1907. p. 901. R. Forrer: Urgeschichte des Europäers. Stuttgart. Spemann. 1908. George Grant Mac Curdy: Recent Discoveries Bearing on The Antiquity of Man in Europe. Washington. Smithsonian Institution Report for 1901. p. 543-547. Schmidt, Koken u. Schlitz: Die diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands. Stuttgart. Schweizerbartscher Verlag. 1912. p. 171, 192-193, 261. F. Schwerz: Die Völkerschaften der Schweiz von der Urzeit bis zur Gegenwart. Stuttgart. 1915. p. 7 u. ff., p. 65. Reports of the Swiss Society for Prehistory: Vol. I, IV, V, VI, VII, IX, X, XI. XII. F. Wiegers: Ueber das Alter des diluvialen Menschen in Deutschland. Zeitschrift der Deutschen geolog. Gesellsch. Vol. 65, 1913, Monatsbericht Nr. 11. p. 564 ff. and Vol. 64, Year 1912, Monatsbericht Nr. 12, p. 603 u. 605. (Die geolog. Grundlagen für die Chronologie des Diluvialmenschen). L. Pfeiffer: Die steinzeitliche Technik. Jena. Gustav Fischer. 1912. p. 3, 72, 132, 230, 329. L. Reinhardt: Der Mensch zur Eiszeit in Europa. München. E. Reinhardt. 1913. K. G. Volk: Geologisches Wanderbuch. II. Vol. Leipzig. Täubner. 1915 etc. Albert Heim: Geologie der Schweiz. I. Vol. p. 336 ff. 

  13. If I still adhere today to the designation Mousterian for the Wildkirchli, I do so for good reasons. I know very well and have always emphasized to my colleagues that the stone artifacts from Wildkirchli cannot be completely identified with the classical Mousterian of France. The same applies to Cotencher (Neuchâtel). An equation of the two sites with the Kösten-Micoque type according to O. Hauser (La Micoque) is not to be considered for the time being. 

  14. H.-G. Stehlin et Aug. Dubois: Note préliminaire sur les Fouilles entreprises dans la grotte de Cotencher (canton de Neuchâtel). Eclogae geologicae Helvetiae. T. XIV. 1916. Aug. Dubois: Note sur les fouilles exécutées en 1916 dans la grotte de Cotencher. Mus. neuch. N.F. 3 (1916). p. 145—151. Aug. Dubois (Neuchâtel): Les Fouilles de la Grotte de Cotencher. Actes de la Société Helvétique des Sciences Naturelles, réunie à Neuchâtel (1920), 101e Session. Aarau. H.R.Sauerländer. 1920. Furthermore: Annual reports of the Swiss Society for Prehistory 1915. 1916, p. 36—38. 1917, p. 23—25. 1918 (H. G. Stehlin) p. 42 and 43. In the upper layers of the cave of Cotencher, Neolithic material was also found (awls, buttons, stone axes, arrowheads made of bone). S. G. U. 1918, p. 32. 

  15. Cf. Aug. Dubois: La dernière glaciation dans la Gorge de l’Areuse et le Val de Travers. Neuchâtel. Attinger frères. 1910, and H. Schardt et Aug. Dubois: Description géologique de la région des Gorges de l’Areuse. (With geological map). Bulletin de la Société Neuchâteloise des sciences naturelles. Tome XXX, 1901—1902. 

  16. Recent excavations near Thayngen, i.e., in the “Vordere Eichen” and “in der Bsetze” by the brothers Sulzberger in Schaffhausen have, according to the presentations by curator K. Sulzberger, provided proof that besides neolithic finds from the surface, those of the Magdalenian also occur in the middle layers, and even artifacts in the lowest layers that one is justified in assigning to the Aurignacian. (Cf. Annual reports of the Swiss Society for Prehistory, VI (1913), VII (1914), VIII (1915), X (1917). 

  17. I have recorded the first brief reports on the Drachenloch in the annual reports of the Natural History Museum of the City of St. Gallen (1917/18, 1918/19). See also the annual reports of the Swiss Society for Prehistory. Editorial Prof. Dr. E. Tatarinoff) X (1917), XI (1918) and especially XII (1919/20), p. 40 ff. 

  18. Compare also Report III (1911) of the Swiss Society for Prehistory, p. 12—15. 

  19. The rich literature about the Calfeisen-Tamina valley can be found listed in the 1913 yearbook (49th year) of the Swiss Alpine Club by F. W. Sprecher: “About place names of the Tamina valley,” as well as in the club guide through the Graubünden Alps, section I: The Tamina region, by the same author. In botanical respect, the area has undergone its first thorough exploration by Theodor Schlatter (in Wartmann and Schlatter: “Critical overview of the vascular plants of the cantons of St. Gallen and Appenzell,” Reports of the St. Gallen scientific society). The author of this work has conducted further extensive botanical studies in the years 1899-1904. Their publication will occur in a separate monograph. The geological literature is listed in section IV of this work (pp. 49/50). For the topographic map 1:50,000 (Siegfried atlas: sheets Vättis and Elm) use: Becker, Frid. Itinerary S.A.C. Graue Hörner-Calanda-Ringelspitz 1888. 

  20. The current state of our knowledge about the geological conditions of the Pfäfers springs is clearly and sharply described in Albert Heim’s classic “Geology of Switzerland” (Vol. II, p. 476). According to Heim, the collection area of the thermal water is to be sought on the south slope of the Graue Hörner in the autochthonous chalk of St. Martin-Vättnerberg, but not in the 2436 m high Wildsee lake on Piz Sol. 

  21. “The Romansh names are spoken throughout by the local population of Vättis with the Romansh initial hard C (where such occurs), which cannot really be reproduced with German letters, except with two gg, which we cannot well place at the beginning of words. It is therefore completely incorrect to want to Germanize the words with the initial C to G, like Gungels, Galanda, Galveisen, Gruscha, Galvina, Galsaura, etc.” (Th. Nigg, whose explanations I completely agree with.) -– The fear of the Romansh C is therefore not to be understood. The spelling and pronunciation “Kalfeusen,” “Calfeusen,” instead of Calfeisen (in old documents = Calfeissen) should disappear once and for all, since it has nothing to do with documentary traditions. The Eschmann map also writes Calfeusen. In popular speech, “Calveis” is hardly used. 

  22. The name is not given in the topographic map. Today there is no trace of a hut that once stood here. 

  23. The ascent to Gelbberg-Drachenloch must be moved either to the earliest morning hours or to the evening, after 4 o’clock, to avoid the almost unbearable heat on the mountain slope on this side in summer. 

  24. About alpine and pasture economy, the excellent handbook by Prof. Dr. F. G. Stebler, Zurich is informative. (Berlin. Paul Parey. 1903.) 

  25. Johann Jakob Scheuchzer (1706-1708, 1716, 1746 and 1752), Gruner (1760), Fäsi (1766) and others who treat the natural history of Switzerland do not yet know the name. -– In the popular speech of the Tamina valley one hears mostly the names “Draggaberg,” whose uppermost steep rock wall is also called the “Gääl Wand” (Yellow Wall) and the alp lying beneath it Gelbberg or “Gelbaberg,” and “Dragga-loch.” Nevertheless one also hears among the local residents of Vättis the names Drachenberg and Drachenloch. 

  26. Such as Bamoze, Simel, Crisp (in the Tersol), Brändlisberg (now Satzmartinhorn), etc. The present Vättnerkopf (incorrectly called Aelplikopf in the topographical map 1:50,000, 2619 m) is called by Eschmann: “Gelber Berg.” The Gelbbergalp is correctly indicated. 

  27. Yearbook of the Swiss Alpine Club. 49th year (1913) and 51st year (1916). Supplement. 

  28. According to Placidus a Spescha the Romance dragun = wild stream, gully, dargun = rock fall. For the rest, reference may also be made here to J. J. Scheuchzer 1746, II. Volume, p. 237, where he says “that the raging mountain waters are often named with the name of dragons by the alpine people. Namely when a stream rushes down the mountains and carries large stones, trees and other things with it, they are accustomed to say: A dragon has gone out; to which figurative designation perhaps the harmfulness of dragons gave occasion; and I do not deny that many false tales of dragons may also have their origin from this.” These remarks Scheuchzer connects to the dragon of Quinten on Lake Walen, whereby he also reports that the common legend of the alpine people is confirmed that severe thunderstorms generally arise after a dragon has been seen. -– How easily one could be tempted, with our Drachenloch, to think that among the people the thought of such a dragon might also have come when, for example, the Kreuzbach coming from the Drachenberg-Vättnerkopf rushed down as a devastating torrent (Cf. our Fig. 2). 

  29. Werner Manz has worked out a very valuable monograph on “Folk customs and folk beliefs of the Sarganser region,” which appeared in No. 12 of the Writings of the Swiss Society for Folklore (1916). From F. W. Sprecher we possess in the Swiss Archive for Folklore, VII. year, issues 2 and 3 (1903) two works on “Folk customs from the Tamina valley.” 

  30. Historia Naturalis Helvetiae curiosa 1680. p. 249. 

  31. The “Rappe” is the bearded vulture, “the terror of sheep and goat herds,” which however is now extinct throughout all of Switzerland. 

  32. Cf. H. Szadrowsky: The music and its tone-producing instruments of the alpine inhabitants. Yearbook of the Swiss Alpine Club, 4th volume. On pages 315-317 is found the Alpsegen in original text along with beautiful musical setting. 

  33. Whoever wants to get a more precise insight into the mysterious dragon stories in Switzerland should delve into the following old books: Johann Stumpff: Common praiseworthy Confederation of Towns, Lands and Peoples Chronicle of worthy deeds Description (Zurich, Froschauer) 1548. Conrad Gessner: Animal Book 1606: Section “De Serpentibus” or Snake Book. Johann Jacob Scheuchzer: Itinera per Helvetiae alpinas regiones, tomus tertius. 1723. ! In this work we find 11 plates with pictures of Swiss dragons, which give us a good concept of the then fantastic views of the people about dragon creatures. -—— Natural history of Switzerland, including travels over the Swiss mountains. Zurich 1746, II. Part. pp. 219, 227 ff., 234, 237. J. J. Wagner: Historia naturalis Helvetiae curiosa. Tiguri 1680. Barth. Bisckoffberger: Appenzell Chronicle. St. Gallen 1682. Gabriel Walser: Briefly composed Swiss geography. 1770. A comprehensive work on the dragon creatures of popular imagination (with pictures) I will bring to publication at another place. 

  34. The scientific excavation of this Drachenloch was undertaken by Dr. P. Adelhelm Jaun in Stans (Bronze and Iron Age). Annual report of the college in Stans. Cf. also Dr. P. Emanuel Scherrer, Sarnen: A visit to the Drachenloch. Brother Klaus Calendar. Sarnen. 1916. 

  35. I refer here to the valuable work by Dr. Werner Manz: Contributions to the Ethnography of the Sarganser Region 1913, which appeared in the publications of the “Geographic-Ethnographic Society in Zurich.” There we also find a list of source literature. I partly follow the information from this book in my historical presentation. 

  36. Not without reason, however, teacher Th. Nigg in Vättis suspects that the traces of a Roman road mentioned by Manz are probably only the remains of the former monastery road. 

  37. Bavier: The Roads of Switzerland. p. 19. 

  38. Wartmann: The Pfävers Monastery. p. 4. 

  39. Kuoni: The Kunkels. p. 4. 

  40. The Fluppischlucht has achieved a certain fame in zoological literature through the former residence of the long-vanished “Waldrapp” or Northern Bald Ibis (Geronticus eremita L.) from the Pfäfers region, which Conrad Gessner mentions in his Historia avium (1555). Cf. J. Strohl: Conrad Gessner’s “Waldrapp” in Festschrift of the Natural Research Society Zurich 1917 (pp. 501-538). 

  41. The former presence of Romance population in the Tamina valley is evidenced by a multitude of Romance names; Ancapa, Asletschen, Asletten; Bracavall, Bovel, Bargis, Barweirsch, Piz Bargias; Calfeisen, Calanda, Calvinen, all “C” pronounced as “GG”; Piz Dolf; Ernus, Edris, Erdinoos; Feuscha, Flättache, Fojeri, Foppa, Föppli; Gallsaura, Gams, Gangleraux, Gardatscha, Garminna, Gaschetta, Gaspus, Gauis, Glägg, Gonscheraus, Gonscherollen, Grassplon, Grebi, Grisp, Gruschla, Gschadella, Gwaggis; Lavaz, Ladils; Maguasch, Mapragg, Maton, Mattlina, Molinaris, Monteluna, Mursch; Panära or Banära, Pardätsch, Parli, Permont, bei der Porta; Quadern; Radein, Ragol, Ramutz-Ramoza, Rofanetschli; Sardona, Schräa, Schüela, Piz Segnes, Serren, Simel, Piz Sol, Piz da Sterls, Spina; Tamina-Tyminnen, Tschenner, Tschugg, Tersol; Vadura, Valens, Vasön, Vättis = Fettens etc., Vidameida, Vindels; Waldafan; Zina, Zanay = Zaney. 

  42. E. Branger: Legal History of the Free Walser in Eastern Switzerland. 

  43. R. Hoppeler: Investigations on the Walser Question. 

  44. O. Wettstein: Anthropogeography of the Safien Valley. pp. 32-39. 

  45. Mr. Teacher Nigg, Vättis, informs me in writing: “The Vättnerberg was undoubtedly a Walser farmstead. The property relationships that still exist today speak for this, as well as the type of management. The property owners still form today a corporation whose members, besides their own goods, also possess common corporate property, common land, hay mountains and forest and use and manage the latter jointly. Until today individual loads of alpine rights from ‘Vättnerbergers’ in Calvina still exist by right. Formerly a larger or smaller number of loads of alpine rights in Calvina belonged to each mountain estate (in 1896 there were 62¼ loads, of which 1½ loads fell to a property owner in the minimum case, 13¼ loads in the maximum case). Today almost all of these alpine rights have been purchased by the community of Vättis, the now sole owner of the Alp Calvina.” Further Walser settlements besides those already named are known in the Prätigau, Davos, Langwies, Arosa, Valzeina, Stürvis, on the mountain slopes from Maienfeld to Churwalden, on the Heinzenberg, in the Oberhalbstein, Avers, around the Calanda, Walserberg, Vorder- and Hinterpalfries (the latter three north of the Gonzen), on the Triesen Berg, in the small and large Walser valley (Vorarlberg) and also in Tirol. 

  46. We have succeeded in creating a very clear photograph of these foundation remains, which is in our possession. 

  47. According to kind communication from Mr. Teacher Th. Nigg, however, already before 1367 “Pantaleon von Kalueiss, der Walliser, appears in possession of ‘drizehn stukken’ arable and meadow land situated in the ‘hof za Fussuns’ (Vasön). (Document from 1379 in the collection of Th. Nigg.) 

  48. The highest alpine huts are found today in the Calfeisental at 2047 and 2070 m (Egg and Gelbberg). 

  49. Cf. also: G. Meyer v. Knonau: From the History of the Landscapes of the Club Region. Yearbook of the S.A.C. 1888. 

  50. The cave plans included here may only be regarded as sketches. The actual topographical survey is still outstanding. Its results will be recorded in the main publication about the Dragon Cave. 

  51. The course of the eastern rock wall of Dragon Mountain goes (measured with the magnetic needle) exactly in the direction 20° NNE—200° SSW. The exposure of the cave portal is 110° ESE. From this it follows that the direction of the cave axis lies nearly perpendicular to the ridge direction, or the almost NS course of Dragon Mountain itself. — Every Dragon Cave visitor who has made the piquant circumnavigation of Dragon Mountain on the south side to the even more surprising, precipitously falling western rock wall of this mountain toward Tersol Gorge (with magnificent view of the Sardona group, the Satzmartinhorn, the rear Tersol valley, Piz Sol and the lonely Crisp valley) has the question on his tongue: How many meters might still be lacking for the Dragon Cave to have an exit on the west side? We have subjected this question to a measuring examination (14 Sept. 1921). Since the strike direction of the Dragon Mountain west wall amounts to 348° NNW, thus does not run exactly parallel to the eastern rock wall, the length of the south side of the mountain (up to the isolated rock head) = 90 m, so with an actual cave length of the Dragon Cave of 65-70 m a difference of about 12 m results. The Dragon Cave would accordingly have to be lengthened by this much in order to enjoy a gruesomely beautiful view into Tersol valley on the blackish rock band (Gault) lying probably 30 m high above the narrow grass band on the western rock wall. (View from high rock window.) 

  52. In Memoirs of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Vienna 1911, 1913, 1915. 

  53. J. Wiesner: The Light Enjoyment of Plants. Leipzig. W. Engelmann. 1907. 

  54. The carefully collected flowerless plants (mosses, lichens, algae) still await closer species determination. 

  55. The installation and use of self-registering meteorological instruments (thermograph, barograph), as has been done in the Wildkirchli cave, unfortunately cannot be considered in the Dragon Cave and especially in wintertime, since the mechanism of these apparatus is too short-term (8 days) and an ascent in unfavorable weather and in winter to the Dragon Cave is not possible because of the snow conditions. 

  56. Jul. Maurer, Rob. Billwiller jun. and Clem. Hess: The Climate of Switzerland, in 2 volumes. It is the classic climate work that is indispensable to the natural scientist of Switzerland. I refer here to Volume I, pp. 65, 74 (map), 80, 151, 154 and 167. 

  57. The climate of Vättis (meteorological station, 951 m) has, according to kind written communication from Director Dr. J. Maurer, the following advantages: Vättis, not far from the background of a föhn-mild high valley, possesses mild winters, the autumn is equally favorable. Average annual temperature = 6.4°. Seasonal temperature averages: Winter = -1.5°, Spring = 5.8°, Summer = 14.2°, Autumn = 6.9° C. For the rest cf. Climate of Switzerland, I, p. 151). Great freedom from fog. Main winds: NE (good weather wind from St. Peter) and SW (rain wind) from the Calfeisen valley (the “weather hole” of the Vättner people). Protected against north and northwest winds. Average precipitation amount with 1133 millimeters below the general average of Switzerland. 

  58. In my generally comprehensible writing: The Wildkirchli I have described the “temperature inversion” more closely. For the one who first touched on this peculiar problem and striking phenomenon is none other than the founder and establisher of the “Wildkirchli,” Pastor Dr. Paulus Ulmann, who lived there as a hermit for full two years, 1658-1660, and in his handwritten diary, which is still preserved, wrote down a number of interesting weather reports, which I have included according to the original text in my above-mentioned writing. 

  59. Kraus Fr.: Cave Science. Vienna. 1894. 

  60. Fugger E.: Ice Caves and Wind Tubes. Salzburg. 24th-26th Report of the Higher Secondary School. 1891-1893. 

  61. Lohmann Hans: The Cave Ice. Jena. K. Bose. 1895. 

  62. Futterer K.: Observations on the Ice of the Feldberg. Karlsruhe. 1901. 

  63. Crammer Hans: Ice Cave and Wind Tube Studies. Treatise of the Geographical Society Vienna. I. 1899. 

  64. Contributions to the Geological Map of Switzerland. XXV. Issue (1891). 

  65. Quarterly Journal of the Natural Research Society Zurich. 55th Year (1910). 

  66. Contributions to the Geological Map of Switzerland. New Series. XXXIII. Issue (1911). 

  67. Yearbook of the Natural Society of Graubünden 1854, supplemented 1855/56. 

  68. Contributions to the Geological Map of Switzerland. N.S. VII. Issue (1897). 

  69. Contributions to the Geological Map of Switzerland. N.S. XXXIX. Issue (1912). 

  70. Geological Map of the Alps between Linth area and Rhine (Graue Hörner, Ringelspitz, Calanda). Surveyed by M. Blumenthal, J. Oberholzer and K. Tolwinsky. Special Map No. 63. I owe a first proof print, which still requires further corrections, to the kindness of Prof. Dr. Albert Heim in Zurich. 

  71. Albert Heim: The supposed vault bending of the northern limb of the “Glarner Double Fold” south of the Klausen Pass, a self-correction. Quarterly Journal of the Natural Research Society Zurich. 51st Year (1906). Albert Heim: Observations from the root region of the Glarner folds (Helvetic nappes). Contributions to the Geological Map of Switzerland. New Series. XXXI. Issue (1911). Albert Heim: The structure of the Swiss Alps. New Year’s Sheet of the Natural Research Society Zurich 1908 (110th piece), p. 9 ff. 

  72. Arnold Heim: On the knowledge of the Glarner overthrust folds. Journal of the German Geological Society. Year 1905. 

  73. Paul Arbenz and Walther Staub: The root region of the Helvetic nappes in the Hinterrhein valley and the overthrusting of the Bündner schists south of Bonaduz. Quarterly Journal of the Zurich Natural Society. 55th Year (1910). Paul Arbenz: The recumbent folds of central and eastern Switzerland. Quarterly Journal of the Zurich Natural Society. 58th Year (1913). 

  74. Club guide of the Swiss Alpine Club. 

  75. Compare also: Albert Heim: Some words on the geology of the club area. Yearbook S.A.C. 1888. 

  76. Cf. the geological profile table XVIII in A. Heim, Geology of Switzerland. Volume II. 

  77. Corrigenda: Satzmartinshorn is Wildflysch not Verrucano. 

  78. The name Lochseitenkalk comes from the locality Lochseite near Schwanden already investigated by A. Escher v. d. Linth. It is still today the classic place where already in the depth below the process of overfolding and overthrusting and the fact of inverted stratification, as well as of nappe thrust, can be recognized with full clarity. — The upper boundary of the Lochseitenkalk is mostly a smooth, polished-looking sliding surface. The underside, on the other hand, is uneven, jagged, confused, often kneaded with the underlying, mostly differently stratified, southeast-dipping flysch. — More detailed information about this peculiar metamorphosed rock we find in A. Heim: Mechanism of Mountain Building, furthermore in A. Heim: Geology of Switzerland, Volume II and in many other writings of the same author. 

  79. As autochthonous Alb. Heim (Geology of Switzerland, Vol. II, p. 32) designates “that mountain which is folded, compressed, raised in place without wide horizontal displacement.” As parautochthonous one designates according to Arnold Heim (loc. cit., p. 33) “those nappe-form folds and scales which according to facies and tectonics are immediately linked with the autochthonous massif mantle or have been torn off from there by higher nappes and passively transported, but do not originate from its southern side.” About the nappe structure of the Swiss Alps, the overthrusting and folding phenomena, one orients oneself best in the first chapters of Vol. II of the Geology of Switzerland by Prof. Albert Heim, and in the same author’s writing: The Structure of the Swiss Alps (New Year’s Sheet of the Zurich Natural Society 1908). 

  80. As a sign of the extremely favorable autumn of 1921 it may be mentioned that on September 14 on the Vättnerkopf (2619 m) the following plants were still found blooming: Gentiana verna, Linaria alpina, Saxifraga oppositifolia, Campanula pusilla, Silene exscapa, Cerastium alpinum, Oxytropis montana. A lively butterfly, a small tortoiseshell (Vanessa urticae), flew around the summit at a temperature of 13° C (11 o’clock morning, direct sunshine). 

  81. Frost splitting manifests itself in the way that the water present in the rock freezes and the ice according to a known law demands 1/11 greater space than the water. This space enlargement now works as a rock-splitting force. Thus the rock is further fractured; in the clefts new ice forms every winter that performs the blasting work with ever greater force. Upon thawing, a further loosening of the rock occurs each time. 

  82. In my handwritten “Methodology of today’s prehistoric cave research” I have given a detailed presentation of the practically tested excavation methods. 

  83. Layers III and IV with the richest faunistic inventory, of which naturally a large part is completely decomposed, are according to the investigations of the Mining Bureau in Bern (Chemical Department: Dr. Truniger) quite rich in phosphate earth. Experiments that were made in Vättis with these earths proved their excellent fertilizing effect, especially in cauliflower beds through a most abundant growth of this vegetable plant. The thought of a larger practical utilization of this red-brown phosphate earth had to be abandoned, however, because of too small yield (high transport costs!). 

  84. W. Soergel: Das Aussterben diluvialer Säugetiere und die Jagd des diluvialen Menschen. Festschrift zur 43. Allgem. Vers. d. deutschen Anthrop. Gesellschaft in Weimar 1912. Jena, Gust. Fischer, 1912. 

  85. Abhandlungen der K. Bayr. Akademie der Wiss. II. Kl. XXIV. Bd. II. Abt. München 1909. 

  86. The last bear in the Calfeisen valley (simultaneously in the canton of St. Gallen) was killed in 1805 (see New Year’s issue 1890 of the Historical Society St. Gallen, p. 36). According to W. Manz (Contributions to the Ethnography of the Sarganserland, pp. 98-99), on November 23, 1799, following the instruction of a bailiff’s letter after a three-month chase, a 3-centner heavy bear was killed by Jakob Wildhaber of Sargans, the so-called monastery hunter, by a single rifle shot in the Calfeisen valley and thereupon transported out of it under drumbeat and great jubilation. According to oral communications from David Kohler, mountain guide in Vättis (†), the last bear on the Alp Schraea in the rear Calfeisen valley is said to have attacked and eaten a cow. According to D. Kohler, a current pasture on the Panära alp is called “Bäre-fahd” (Fahd = path, way), a ground above it “Bärefahdboden”. A place on a rock under the Sardona was also called “Bi der Bärefalle”. -– The same informant also told me that the people of the Calfeisen valley at the time when there were still bears there, built actual deep bear pits, which they covered with loose branches and leaves and tied a goat as bait at the spot. Already in 1742 we find in the statute established by the inhabitants of Calfeisen (Pfäf. Regesten Nr. 670) the following passage: “Item, wen man in Calfeysen Wolff oder Beren jnnen würt vnd man die Lüt jn demselben teyll wissen lat, So soll jederman louffen, es seyend jngesessen thallüt oder goyell (?) die den da alpend, vnd die thier Helffen Jagen vnd vertriben.” In 1529 a shooting fee of 5 guilders was set by the inhabitants of the Sarganserland for killing a bear or wolf. Still at the end of the 18th century, the persecution of wild animals was a common cause. The church bells called the able-bodied men of the entire valley to common driving and chasing hunts. (According to Manz, loc. cit. 96-98.) The lynx was also still present then. 

  87. The last bearded vulture in this area, a very old female, was captured alive at Calanda in 1822. It stands in the Natural History Museum of the city of St. Gallen. 

  88. Cf. E. Bächler: Die Wiedereinbürgerung des Steinwildes in den Schweizeralpen. Jahrbuch der St. Gall. Naturw. Ges. 55. Band, 1917/18. 

  89. The first specimen of the dwarf ermine (Putorius ermineus minimus Cav.) from the canton of St. Gallen was sent to me by Mr. Teacher Th. Nigg from the village of Vättis for the Natural History Museum (1919). Cf. Th. Studer: Ueber Putorius ermineus minimus Cavazza. Eine Zwergform des Hermelins. Mitt. d. Naturf. Ges. Bern 1913. 

  90. The cave-dwelling animals and plants can be divided into the following groups (cf. W. v. Knebel, Höhlenkunde, pp. 196-197): a) Troglophiles, i.e. animals and plants that also occur outside caves but prefer caves as dwelling places. b) Troglobiotes or true cave dwellers, these are animals and plants that are found only in caves (e.g. cave fish, olm, cave crabs, etc.). c) Temporary cave dwellers, these are animals whose living conditions lie outside caves, who therefore only seek caves as dwellings at certain times (e.g. predators, bats, etc.), also humans. About the animal world of caves, W. Kobelt, die Verbreitung der Tierwelt, 29th chapter: Höhlentiere, pp. 543-552 and O. Hamann: Europäische Höhlenfauna. Jena 1896 provide excellent orientation. 

  91. Cf. F. Baumann: Ueber eine Schneemauskolonie am Stockhorngipfel und die Bedeutung eines solchen Vorkommens in systematischer und tiergeographischer Hinsicht. Mitteil. d. Naturf. Ges. in Bern 1918, pp. 108-118. About the snow vole we find individual descriptions in F. v. Tschudi: Thierleben der Alpenwelt, 11th ed., pp. 502-505 and in V. Fatio: Fauna des Vertébrés de la Suisse, Vol. I, p. 231-234. -– V. Fatio: Les campagnols du Bassin du Léman (Association zoologique du Léman, année 1867). -– Börner u. Schinz: Naturgeschichte der in der Schweiz einheimischen Säugetiere, Zürich 1809, do not yet know the snow vole. It was first described in 1842 by Martius (Revue de Zoologie) and more thoroughly in the Annales des sciences naturelles, Volume XIX, as a new species (from specimens from the Faulhorn). The alpine large fauna we still find most beautifully presented in the ever-classic “Thierleben der Alpenwelt” by Fr. v. Tschudi. For the study of alpine animal life, the following writings may still be mentioned here: F. Zschokke: Die Tierwelt der Alpen einst und jetzt. Basel. 1920. -– F. Zschokke: Die Tierwelt der Schweiz in ihren Beziehungen zur Eiszeit. Basel. Benno Schwabe. 1901. -– E.A. Goeldi: Die Tierwelt der Schweiz in der Gegenwart und Vergangenheit. Vol. I. Bern. A. Francke. 1914. -– W. Kobelt: Die Verbreitung der Tierwelt. Leipzig. Tauchnitz. 1902.— W. Haacke u. W. Kuhnert: Das Thierleben der Erde. Vol. I: Alpenthierleben, pp. 559-588. -– Conr. Keller: Im Hochgebirge. Naturwiss. Bibl. Leipzig. Quelle & Meyer. 1911. -– We owe very valuable monographs on alpine animals to our St. Gallen natural scientist *Dr. A. Girtanner (died 1907), such as on the ibex, the bearded vulture, golden eagle, wallcreeper, alpine swift, the alpine chough, the marmot. See the list of the numerous writings of Dr. A. Girtanner in the Jahrbuch der St. Gall. Naturwiss. Ges. 1907, pp. 130-133. (Dr. med. Georg Albert Girtanner. Biography by Johannes Brassel.) 

  92. Subsequently I see from Ed. Handschin: Beiträge zur Kenntnis der wirbellosen terrestrischen Nivalfauna der Schweiz. Hochgebirge (Dissertation from the Zoological Institute of the University of Basel, 1919), that E. Handschin also encountered Triphosa dubitata at the Hühnertäli glacier at 2800 m altitude (29. VII. 1916). 

  93. Naumann: Naturgeschichte der europ. Vögel, Vol. IV, pp. 40-47. -– F. v. Tschudi: Thierleben der Alpenwelt, 11th ed., 1890, p. 499. -– A. Girtanner: Die Alpendohle (Ornith. Monatsschrift der deutsch. Ver. z. Schutze der Vogelwelt, XXV., 1919, p. 346). 

  94. Pestuns or “child nurses” the Russians call the young of the first two years, who still remain with the bear mother, whereby they tend their younger siblings (M. Schlosser: Die Tischoferhöhle, 419). 

  95. About the systematics of fossil and living Ursus species, forms, varieties, etc., E. Trouessart provides orientation: Catalogus Mammalium tam viventium quam fossilium. Tome II and Supplementum. Berlin. Friedländer (1898-1905). 

  96. The species Ursus arctos subfossilis can be maintained for the Drachenloch despite newer results about Ursus spelaeus. (Cf. Theodor Kormos: Ueber die überzähligen Praemolare des Höhlenbären. Barlangkutatäs. II. Vol. 1914. p. 229. Budapest.) 

  97. Oskar Fraas: Der Hohlenstein und der Höhlenbär. Jahresber. d. Ver. f. Naturgeschichte in Württemberg. 17th year 1861. 158-188. Eberhard Fraas: Die Höhlen der Schwäb. Alb. 

  98. G. Hagmann: Die diluviale Wirbeltierfauna von Vöklinshofen. Strasbourg. 1899. 

  99. W. Soergel: Das Aussterben diluvialer Säugetiere etc. 

  100. G. Steinmann: Die zoologischen Grundlagen der Abstammungslehre. Leipzig. 1908. 

  101. Cf. F. Baumann: Ueber eine Schneemauskolonie am Stockhorngipfel. Mitteil. der Naturf. Gesellschaft in Bern. 1918. p. 113 et seq. 

  102. In the artificial separation of the bear skull (decapitation) it is an empirical fact that always the two first cervical vertebrae are separated with the skull, these thus remain attached to the skull. Strikingly, a whole number of second cervical vertebrae (epistropheus) also have injuries in a consistent manner at the place where the separation of the head from the body took place. 

  103. The humerus is incidentally the one that possesses the largest marrow cavity. 

  104. For all stone cist finds, an exact list of the bones located in the stone frame has been recorded. Thus for the skull with the right femur drawn through. Next to the latter were also found: a left humerus in which the lower epiphysis was missing, two other humeri, in both the upper epiphysis missing; furthermore: 2 tibiae (1 left, 1 right), complete, 1 almost complete left ulna, 5 unrelated lumbar vertebrae and some smaller bones. Exact measurements have shown that not two of the named bones belong together, thus do not originate from one and the same skeleton. 

  105. I recall from the many examples only the hunting customs still practiced today among mountain peoples of the Caucasus, which E. Pfitzenmayer (Stuttgart) describes to us in his charming: “Memories of Caucasian Big Game Hunts” (“Wild und Hund”, XXV year, No. 50 [1919], XXVI year, No. 2, 3, 6, 8, 12, 19, 20 [1920]) where he writes in No. 50 (1919), p. 663: “This pass height with its view of the hunting territory of hunters coming from Chevsuretia was quite the place for a roundish masonry near us, to which our attention was drawn. This was a sacrificial site erected to the Chevsuretic hunting god, covered with deer antlers and tur (ibex) horns, which partly already showed very strong weathering. When the Chevsuretic hunters go out hunting, in order to secure success, it must not be neglected to vow to the hunting god at his sacrificial site a piece of the trophies of the game that the hunters hope to bag, which is then deposited here on the return journey, etc.” -– Colleague E. Pfitzenmayer showed me last winter on the occasion of his lecture in St. Gallen about the expeditions he accompanied for the lifting of mammoths enclosed in Siberian ice, photographs from the Caucasus on which such sacrificial altars of Caucasian hunting peoples were depicted. Among them were altars with deer antlers, but also with bear skulls. Mr. Conservator Pfitzenmayer, a capable hunter, has admitted the identity of these sacrificial altars in the Caucasus with the hunting cult sites in the Drachenloch in all parts. 

  106. About bear festivals (after successful hunting) among the Ainos and Siberian peoples (famous bear hunters are also the Lapps) we read in L. Heilborn: Wild Animals (Bong, Berlin 1921, p. 141): “While the women weep and lament, the dead bear is festively decorated, placed on a mat and provided with food and drink. One sacrifices to it, holds speeches to it, becomes ever more exuberant, and finally the animal is dismembered, the blood drunk and the meat distributed among those present. But the skull is preserved in a sacred place.” A series of such ethnological parallels about bear skull cult among today’s natural peoples could still be cited, who pursue bear hunting in the most primitive way (by means of animal traps, pitfalls, spears, lassos, automatic guns). One may also compare in Th. Zell (Giants of the Animal World, Berlin, Ullstein & Co.) the 14th chapter: “Various ceremonies of natural peoples after the killing of mighty predators” (pp. 164—171). In the two main works by Otto Keller: “Animals of Classical Antiquity in Cultural-Historical Relation” (Innsbruck, Wagner University Bookstore, 1887) and “The Ancient Animal World”, Vol. I (Leipzig, Wilh. Engelmann, 1909), we find rich instruction about bear cult in saga, myth, poetry and history. The veneration for the “king of European forests” brought him into relationships with deities (Artemis, at whose temples bear heads were hung up, Zeus, Helena, Meleager etc.). The religious-demonic-mystical significance made the bear the type for coins among the Gallic and Hispanic Celts. In the animistic Gallic cult the striding bear is the main attribute of the goddess Dea Artio, who has her name from arctos = artos, Celtic-Irish “Art”. We also find him often as totem and soul-migration object. In classical antiquity, hunting bears even with pitfalls is a sport and high pleasure to which Roman emperors and Persian sultans devoted themselves with passion. Roman emperors favored the bear for the horrible animal baiting and gladiator games in the amphitheater. At all times the bear was tamed and trained. His placement in the sky as constellations (= great and little bear, Ursus major and Ursus minor) originates from hunting peoples. The popularity of the bear is thus ancient; it is transferred even today from generation to generation in coats of arms and statues. The bear is also already a popular object for cave drawings (totem?) in the youngest period of the Paleolithic (Magdalenian). 

  107. Cf. E. Bächler: The Position of Geology to Today’s Paleolithic Cave Research, in “Heim-Festschrift” (Quarterly Journal of the Zurich Natural Science Society LXIV. (1919). 

  108. It is known that in many bear caves likewise edge-rounded bone partial pieces occur whose rounding arose through flowing water, thus through “rolling” of the bone pieces. In the Wildkirchli, however, such bone scouring is completely excluded. Cf. also Ottokar Kadić: Results of the Exploration of the Szeleta Cave (Hungary). Communications from the Yearbook of the K. Hungarian Geological Imperial Institute. Budapest 1916. It is completely clear that the rounding of bone fragments at the fracture edges and points can be of quite different origin: a) As a result of transport in flowing water, whereby the bone is probably most attacked by the grinding sludge. Experiments that demonstrate the effect of this rolling in water and the real, unmistakable characteristics of the same are completely unknown from the literature so far, since strangely enough no one has taken the trouble to approach this important matter more closely. One speaks constantly without more precise examination only of “bones rolled in water”. b) As a result of chemical dissolution of the bone substance in carbonic acid-containing water, particularly where it stagnates, as on clayey ground. I know this effect from the Wildkirchli and Drachenloch, which can be easily distinguished from “rolling in flowing water”. c) As a result of weathering and chemical decomposition. Such examples we encounter preferentially in the deeper and deepest find layers of a prehistoric deposit. d) As a result of intentional rounding (by means of stone tools) or through actual use of the bone for smoothing through rubbing activity of man. The effects of the four different rounding factors can be distinguished by means of magnifying glass and microscope, about which I will report elsewhere. It can be briefly noted here that in the intentionally intended work with the bone by man, always certain parts of a bone show this activity, while other parts have remained untouched by it. Nevertheless there are also totally rounded bone fragments that certainly testify only to human work (intentional edging and rounding because of greater handiness!). If we find such rounded bones in association with coal hearths, fireplaces, intentional bone accumulations and stone tools, then -– with exclusion of flowing water in the cave at the time of its habitation and later -– their intentional nature is hardly questionable anymore. If the bone pieces finally possess polish or even ground surfaces, then any doubt is no longer justified. 

  109. See the illustrations on Plate IV in E. Bächler: The Wildkirchli. Writings of the Association for History of Lake Constance and its Surroundings. 1912. 

  110. Innkeeper Franz Dörig sen., an eager hunter, who was my faithful collaborator in the Wildkirchli excavations with O. Köberle, had immediately recognized the purpose of these fibula fragments at the time, since he himself, like other Innerrhoden hunters, often used smaller bone pieces for skinning the shot chamois. 

  111. L. Pfeiffer (Weimar): 1. Contribution to Knowledge of Stone Age Hide Processing. Journal of Ethnology. Berlin 1910. Issue 6. 2. The Dismemberment of Hunting Animals in the Stone Age. Correspondence Sheet of the General Medical Association of Thuringia. Weimar 1910. 3. Stone Age Technology. Jena. G. Fischer. 1912. (Main works!) 4. The Tools of Stone Age Man. Jena. G. Fischer. 1920. (Main works!) 

  112. Cf. Arnold Heim: On the Question of Exotic Blocks in the Flysch. Eclogae geologicae Helvetiae. Vol. IX, No. 3, 1907. 

  113. Cf. J. J. Früh: Contributions to Knowledge of the Nagelfluh of Switzerland. Prize-winning Essay. Memoirs of the Swiss Natural Science Society. Vol. XXX. 1888. 

  114. Illustrations of stone tools from the Wildkirchli are found in my works on this prehistoric find site named on page 5, footnote 1). 

  115. I can never agree with the newest attempt by O. Hauser (“On a New Chronology of the Middle Paleolithic in the Vézère Valley”, Leipzig, Veit & Co., 1916) to also classify the Wildkirchli into his “newly discovered” Micoque-Kösten type, since this type unconditionally requires thorough review

  116. K. Tolwinsky: The Gray Horns. Quarterly Journal of the Zurich Natural Science Society. Year 55 (1910). Separate print p. 30 ff. 

  117. In summer 1903 I encountered on the ridge edge Hinterer Drachenberg-Furkla-Zanayhörner a quantity of large exotic blocks weathered in loco, which present themselves like a mountain fall whose origin one does not know. 

  118. These Gault limestone stones must also have been brought into the cave by man, since we never reached the Gault lying under the Seewer limestone of the cave walls in our excavations. In the Wildkirchli we had the same phenomenon of introduced Gault pieces from the Ebenalp. 

  119. L. Pfeiffer (Weimar): 1. Contribution to Knowledge of Stone Age Hide Processing. Journal of Ethnology. Berlin 1910. Issue 6. 2. The Dismemberment of Hunting Animals in the Stone Age. Correspondence Sheet of the General Medical Association of Thuringia. Weimar 1910. 3. Stone Age Technology. Jena. G. Fischer. 1912. (Main works!) 4. The Tools of Stone Age Man. Jena. G. Fischer. 1920. (Main works!) 

  120. Wilhelm Wundt: Elements of Folk Psychology. (Primitive Forms of Magic and Demon Belief.) Leipzig. Kröner. 1912. 

  121. Herm. Klaatsch and L. Heilborn: The Development of Mankind and the Origin of Culture. German Publishing House Bong & Co., Berlin etc. 1920. P. 239: Burial customs. 

  122. The expression retardation (delay or lagging behind) of a cultural stage is used when in remote areas of the earth that have remained untouched by foreign influences for centuries and even longer, older cultures have been preserved, while in other areas with greater mobility of peoples (migrations!) much younger, more advanced cultures have long since come to dominance. -– Thus there are still natural peoples today who have not progressed further in their cultural phase than prehistoric man of the Neolithic (pile dwellers), indeed even stand further back (New Guinea, Tasmania and other places). One also assumes that there have been refuges for the animal world where certain animal species could maintain themselves much longer than in areas with greater human settlement (retarded faunas). 

  123. To prevent any misunderstandings, I would like to emphasize here that I do not claim to have discovered a new “cultural stage,” just as I never postulated a “neutral Swiss Mousterian” (cf. O. Hauser in Journal of Ethnology 1916, p. 300). On the other hand, it must be designated as a pronounced self-deception when O. Hauser counts both the Wildkirchli as well as the finds from Cotencher among his Micoque special type. Since I have seen the Micoque myself, as well as finds from there, I may allow myself a judgment, which I will incidentally justify thoroughly elsewhere. 

  124. The Position of Geology to Today’s Paleolithic Cave Research. 

  125. A pre-glacial settlement of the Drachenloch is to be regarded as completely excluded, as with the Wildkirchli. 

  126. Beiträge zur geolog. Karte der Schweiz, 25th issue p. 470 ff. 

  127. Der Calanda. Beiträge. New series, VII. issue p. 45—55. 

  128. The highest situated erratic rock (a small talc-containing piece) is located at exactly 1921 m. 

  129. The supposition has arisen that for the settlement of the Drachenloch much rather the middle interglacial period (Mindel-Riss-Interglacial) might come into consideration, because it enjoyed a much longer duration under still more favorable conditions.—Although the investigations about the diluvial geological age of the Drachenloch may by no means be finished, no secure indications for an even higher age of the same are known to me until today.—It would also still be premature to make precise time indications from the layer profiles.—On the other hand there are no facts that speak against the last interglacial (Riss-Würm) age of the Drachenloch.—Whether the same is to be placed more at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of the last interglacial period cannot yet be decided. 

  130. The question is often raised whether the Drachenloch inhabitant had not already known the steep ascent from Vättis. To this we naturally have no answer. It was possible, just as well as for today’s mountain walker, since we may surely assume that the erosion of the Taminatal had not yet cut as deeply as today, and therefore the ascent was still easier. Under no circumstances, however, may we think of a pre-glacial settlement of the Drachenloch. 

  131. It is to be regarded as certain that the famous Tamina gorge did not yet exist at that time, since it is of post-glacial age. 

  132. Cf. W. Soergel: Die Jagd des diluvialen Menschen (in: Das Aussterben diluvialer Säugetiere etc.). Jena. G. Fischer. 1912. About the bear, its way of life and the hunt for it compare: Brehm’s Tierleben, 4th ed., XII. vol. Säugetiere, III. vol. (1915). F.v.Tschudi: Thierleben der Alpenwelt, XI. ed. Head Forester Krementz: Der Bär (in den Rokitnosümpfen Russlands). Egon, Baron v. Kapherr: In russischer Wildnis (Berlin. Duncker. 1910). L. Heilborn: Wilde Tiere (Bong, Berlin. 1921). Th. Zell: Riesen der Tierwelt (Berlin. Ullstein & Cie. 1911). Haake u. Kuhnert: Tierleben der Erde, I. vol., p. 590—607. 

  133. All finds depicted in Figs. 17—26 are reduced in size here in the picture.